《社会福利思想》课程教学资源（书籍文献）弗里德曼 Chinese lineage and society

LONDON SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS MONOGRAPHS ON SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY MgingEdorAnthony Forge of an Editorial

LONDON SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS MONOGRAPHS ON SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY No.33 CHINESE LINEAGE AND SOCIETY: FUKIEN AND KWANGTUNG BY MAURICE FREEDMAN UNIVERSITY OF LONDON THE ATHLONE PRESS NEW YORK:HUMANITIES PRESS INC 1966 PnAn

First published by D地nec I published Toronto was an att subject,ma Maurice Freedman,1966 unilineal de anthropolo ended,for sources in exercise in be improy than I and bilities for My conf placed;sev Library of Congress Catalog Card No.66-11164 New terri one among begun in conclusive I can write myself exp evidence g earlier fear tion.Yet t story.The Kwangtun during wh laid up by Japanese a cxploited time,altho It will be Printed in Great Britain by WESTERN卫RINTING S担VICES LTD 1 London S BRISTOL (reprinted wi

PREFACE PREFACE vii all the defects of the first,but since 1957,when Lineage Organtiza- In February 1963 I began a period of field study in the New tiou went to the printer,my view of Chinese social organization Territories.It was cut short after three months by my falling sick has been enlarged by several expericnces.First,I have read in the new Western work on the sociology and social history of China to e In recent years this literature has greatly increased,and,coming under the auspiccs of the then newly created London-Cornell mainly from the United States itplaces us deeper in debt to Project for the study of Chinese and South-East Asian socictics,an American scholarship.Second,during the years 1962 to 1964 I was lucky enough to take part in a series of seminars on the sociol- ogy and anthropology of China organized by the cumbersomely named but very agrceably conducted Sub-committee on Chinese Society of the loint Committee on Contemporary China of the several ways assisted by the New Territories Administration.I Council of Learned Societics and the Social Science this aid with my appreci Research Council'.In these seminars,as well as in other,less tion of the help and advice given me in Hong Kong by Mr J.B formal,settings,I was privileged to have access to the learning Aserappa,District Commissioner New Territories,and his and expricnce of specialists whom, along with the people res officers and staff,especially Mr G.C.M.Lupton (District Officer ponsible for organizing the seminars (especially Mr Bryce Wood Tai Po)and Mr Tsang For Piu;by Mr K.M.A.Barnett;by of the Social Science Research Council,New York),I should like Mr J.W.Hayes;by Mr C.T.Leung;by Mr K.W.J.Topley; very warmly to thank.Third,I have done more reading in the writing older literature on China-and re-read much of it,finding(the these name I acknow dge only some of my debts to the people pleasure must surely be common)that it comes alive all over who made it possible for me to move freely and profitably in the again as new questions are put to it.Finally,I was given the oppor New Territories. tunity in 1963 to make a short field trip to the New Territories; In the course of carrying out thesurvey I was able to confirm my it tied my carlier speculations to a living reality and gave me the earlier opinion that some of the guesses made in Lineage Organiza chance to look more deeply into the past of the oue tesed by both historica esearch and Kwangtung county of Hsin-an from which the New Territorics field work in the New Territories Truc,the historical materials were created in 1808. are thinner than I had expected.There appcarsto be ony a small book draws on the newer literature n older writings amount of Chinese documentation bearing directly on the New which I had not previously used,and on my field work in 1963 Territories.But there is more than has yet been collected in the I have resisted the temptation to set out the results of this field way of land deeds,genealogics,and engraved inscriptions.In an research in great detail becaus e t cy will be berr r presented inde ideal world of historical and sho some pendently of a work intended to be about southeastern China in body would be paid to gather in o copy nat remains.(It is not general But I think it will be clear that many of the changes that only paper that perishes;inscribed stones and boards are removed have tak cn p ace in my view of society in Fukien and Kwang ung and lost.It is more than an antiquarian and nostalgic cri de are attributable to my expcricnce in the New Territories.It is tor that appeals for the rescue of the what,in the chat reason that I must stress its importance. present state of the world,is a privileged part of China.)When the information to be culled fro m these Chinese bined with sources is com Hong Kong the data from British documents and the memorics ety is riven in my fdn,there will be an oppritytosay somethinglm ating about a corner of southeastern China in the last years s of the Ch'ng dynasty.An impressive example of what can be achieved

viii PREFACE PREFACE ix by using these varied sources of information on the past is given Chinese local grouping,r locagrouping to be the chief topic naseris of papers by Mr J.W.Hayes,a Hong Kong civil servan in Chinese society for anthropologists to study.As some of the who was at one time a District Officer in the New Territories. remarks I have made elsewhere will perhaps have shown,'I am As for anthropological field research,there are abundant aware of the need for anthropologists to take a larger view of opportunities for work on lincage organization and topics ger Chinese to raise their eyes(orat any rate streth thei mane to it.The groundwork for the study of New Territories imagination)to wider limits than those of the village.For the rural society has already been laid by Miss Barbara E.Ward moment,however,I am concerned primarily with the local Miss Jean A.Pratt,Professor Jack Potter,Mr H.D.R.Baker and scene.I propose to reconsider the problem of how corporate Mr R.G.Groves.Other anthropologists will certainly follow descent groups in China fitted into a complex socicty,looking at them,and I should like to help dispel the notion that the New that the point of view of the ocagroup. Territories have been so far affected by British rule and modern Finally,I have seve al debts to acknowledge in connexion changes in population and economic ife that they are no longer with the writing of this book.Dr Cheng Te-k'un made a number ing useful to anthropologists interested in the study of traditional Chinese institutions.Of course the New Territorie that book have been profoundly changed since they were brought into the I have tried to profit from them in this one.On several sinological Colony of Hong Kong.Of course they are not a mere fossil points I have been lucky enough to be able to consult Mrs H.M. of the nineteenth century.Of course they sho w many‘moder Wrightand.Lucy Mairdid problem worth investigating (especially as they arse trom the me the great service of reading a draft of the book;she helped me agricultu al revolutions of the last decade and a But to remedy many faults in argument and style.For his encourage half),and we should be very foolish to ignore them old ment (it was a remark he made two years ago that gave me the line lmeages still exist;power is exercised within them;land is stil idea of returning to the theme of Lineage Organization),intel- stral trusts;rites of worship continue to be held in lectual help,and penetrating criticism of both carlier and later ancestral halls.We may see something of what went on under drafts I am deeply in debt to Professor G. William Skinner,my the Chinese Empire,but,just as important,we have the chance transatlantic colleague in the London-Cornell Project.My thanks of understanding how lincages adapt themselves to the modern tohim are accompanicd by an expression of regret that in this world. second attempt at the subject I am still very far below the standard A further preliminary point needs tobe made on this sequelto of scholarship he has himself set for sinological anthropology The new book gets its focus from the one it is designed to supplement.It takes up an interest in the Chines With Profesor Skinner's name I mus coupe those of his o leagucs in Chinese studies at Cornell University who many times lineage which I developed many years ago.From this it does not since 196o have offered me hospitality,intellectual and other. follow that I think the lineage to be the paramount form of Among these colleagues I should like to single out Professor Arthur P.Wolf with whom I have had the privilege of discussing The of life in the New at length problems in the analysis of Chinese society,and who 62:”Chc Chau 18so-1898:Informatio criticized an early draft of this book.From the correspondence 5 oublished Multiple-Cn SeAChinese Phase in Social Anchropologyher of heo gtst's plac 一8二Wt socal and sYafCcomptemeatarycomtnbation

PREFACE have maintained with Mr Baker and Mr Groves while they have been at work in the New Territories,I have been able to settle a ao以m CONTENTS 货 by Mr Baker's criticism of a late draft of this book.My wife went over the last two drafts in detail,helping me to remove a I VILLAGE,LINEAGE,AND CLAN I mbr giving without which this would have been even less of a book than it is. 2.FAMILY 为 The frontispiece(redrawn from an illustration in George Smith. A Narrative of an E Exploratory Visit to Each of the Consular Cities of 3.SOCIAL STATUS,POWER,AND GOVERNMENT China,and to the Islands of Hong Kong and Chusan,London,1847 4.RELATIONS BETWEEN LINEAGES 9 I wish to thank them warmly for this and for some preliminary 5.GEOMANCY AND ANCESTOR WORSHIP II8 work on the photographs from which the plates have been made. 6.LINEAGES IN CHINA London School of Economics M.F. 多 and Political Science BIBLIOGRAPHICAL POSTSCRIPT 85 August 1965 LIST OF WORKS CITED 191 INDEX 201 PLATES Annual Worshipping at the Tombs of Ancestors frontispiece I.A Geomantic Prospect facing page 13 20.Geomancer and Compass 131 b.Gate of a Walled Village 3a.Ancestor Worship in a Lineage Hall b.Firing Crackers at Ch'ing Ming 48 4.Ancestral Hall Altar 47 MAPS 1.South-Eastern China 2 2.Hong Kong and the New Territories

I Village,Lineage,and Clan With the exception of the county of Shun-te and perhaps a few scattered pockets in other counties (of which the Wun Yiu area of the Tai Po District in the New Territories is an example),th villages of the provinces of Fukien and Kwangtung are compact. Many of them are communities composed of the male agnatic descendants of a single ancestor together with their umaried sisters and their wives.To begin with,the chief problem to be discussed is the relationship between settlement pattern and patrilineal grouping. The literature published since 7can be made to serve as a point of departure.C.K.Yang has given us the results of the last village study to be made in mainland China (it concerns a com- munity near the capital of Kwangtung province)before Com- munism had come upon the face of Chinese society.2 And we have been afforded glimpses of two other villa ge studies relev to southeastern China,one of them being carried out in a Hakka community in the New Territories,3 the other in a Hokkien- speaking village in Taiwan.4 1Chinese place names in Hong Kong have official s proncin),nIhave thoutwisefollowo n form ized versions Mass. Jean A.Pratt,'Emigration and Unilineal Descent Gro Bernard Gallin,'Matrilateral and Affinal Relationships of a Taiwanese 02,no.4.August 1960;A Case for

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VILLAGE,LINEAGE,AND CLAN VILLAGE,LINEAGE,AND CLAN 5 Yang's sociological field study was begun before the village of nced to consider later as a close approximation to the theoretical Nanching came under Communist government,and continued model A discussed at pp.131 f.of Lineage Organization.The during the first phase of the new regime.The remarkablechoice of time at whi ch to make observations of modern village life in China gives the book one ofits major interests,but for the moment When we come to Gallin's Taiwan village we arc dealing with with the data in the first part of the study where a community of very heterogeneous lineage elements. The the traditional organization is described.In 1948 Nanching had a opulation of some 1,1oo and was dominated b ytwo‘clans',as but there are in fact more than twelve lineages (if indeed we may ang calls them,which accounted for the overwhelming majority legitimately use the term in this context)for families bearinga of the inhabitants.The two main'clans'and the three minor ones single surname are not all members of one lineage.Despite the Severalled distinct parts of the village.s heterogencity,pcople bearing four of the surnames account for of the larger also spatially separated branch within a clan also had its own the physical plan of the village was blocked out into many individual cells on a kin- village',and the genealogies of such units are of course very shal- low.In this village 'with its relatively short history,almost all One of the main 'clans'had ancestor tablets for members of tsu [lineage]relatives in the village are related through a grand- the forty-second generation;the first ances tor had made his home father or at most a great-grandfather which they have in com- in the village in The most recently dead of the other main cteristic of the area of Taiwan in which this 'clan'were members of the thirty-seventh generation.It would ge issitared the wcst-ccntral coastal plain)thate are lacking.* These new cases raise again the problem of the emergence of As many as forty-two gen single-lineage communities.One of the three villages isa single- wider than that of the lineage community:the small Hakka community in the New 、czC2inA多encalogica framework、 as we shall Territories.Nanchin g is in an area where single-lineage settle- gewas evidendly involved a the cnd of the ments are common,but is not itself one.The Taiwan village is was at the time it was studieda mixed and fairly recent.Now,people have tended to interpret scatered lineage.Yang genealogy relating to this multilineage villa ges and shallow li cage clan',but he does not discuss its contents or its significance. as bcing the result of a breakdown of single-lincage commun The village community studied by Miss Pratt in the New by migration,the southern part of the country displaying a higher a small Hakka lineage of some forty families.This is degree of deep and single-lineage be cause of its relative a relatively isolated and poor hill community which we shall immunity from invasion.Van der Sprenkel,for example,in a recent re-appraisal of Max Weber's work on China,writes: and The evidence shows that lineage organizations were more num- Proceedings of the erous,better organized and more influential in South China than in the North.This may be partly due to southward population op.cit.,pp.11,14.8I.The larger o wrote his book abouortye down the ear. ver o ct and p.(note) gegeCgi2aio,p

6 VILLAGE,LINEAGE,AND CLAN VILLAGE,LINEAGE,AND CLAN 7 mo vements of the Han Chinese under barbarian”pressure. Weaker and less prosperous lineages may'die'.Their numbers Such internal migrations were important as carly as the Six may fall away by sickness and failure (aain through sicknessor Dynasties period,and notably after the fall of the Northern Sung ause of poverty)to reproduce. The sad remnants depart. (Declining natural population will not by itself account for the ment as the disappearance of a lineage,for gaps in the ranks of a rich lineage historically prior form and mixed settlements as evidence of a could always be filled by stockir ing up with adopted sons.Chen Ta, later disturbance of the primordial pattern. It must be true that migration and the different conditions in Wng ot rural Fukien,says that formerly,when fcuds betwe clans'were frequent,sons were sometimes adopted as a means which it took place account in some measure for the pattern of increasing manpower for defence.There was,incidentally distribution of large localized lineages in China;the problem will much more buying of sons in southeastern China than the legal need to be dealt with later.But it would be a grear mistake to rules governing adoption might lead one to suppose.Merchant think that the only direction of change is that in which what were venturers in Fukien, for example,sometimes adopted sons to originally in lineage terms homogeneous local settlements became send out on their trading expeditions overseas.The law was in heterogeneous.On the contrary,the process is reversible,single- fact concerned with adoption aimed at continuing the line succession in the ancestor cult-whence the stress on the need for the adopted sontobe of the and generation status- some evident relish)of earlier ncighbours in the village territory and did not affect the adoption of sons taken only to swell I the (their surnames are usually given) now thrust into oblivion by ranks of the family;they could be got from any convenient those who have supplanted them,and. ore surely and convin- source.)The happy survivors might attribute the ill fortune of cingly,in the abandoned ancestral halls belonging surname their lost neighbours to disaster springing from geomancy,but it now no longer represented what have become single-lineage settlements. Some of these derelict halls,to judge by their appear- and its lon aud N.Y 1939,p.131 ance,must have been in use in fairly recent times (say,even tw or the lawyers putit,su three generations ago),and we have no reason to suppose that hemm of heto the process of elimination has come to a stop There is of course nothing specialabout the New n this respect.Evidence by custom and of extinct lineages is to be md everywhere.Of Nanching.Yang in the dim past there was a ynasty the duty of says that,according to old villagers, 。 was concentrated in Hua clan and a Fang clan who inhabited the northern end of the the wit present village site.Apparently both of them were crowded ou To sho by the late comers,and there were no descendants of either clan departed from,McAleavy in the village. ation of the private Otto B.van sage continues: here are also v.The ecially in For ce are in ch e of all the chuan,Rural Ch ol in the Nineteenth Century, to adopt on the correlation betwcen strong to the ut The distin e in th nterests of successio c prosperity. I p of the sons is crucial to 0B9 f