《全球变化科学》课程教学资源（讲义）09 Assessment of hydromorphologicalalterations and pressures in Europe（case study –Romania）

WuhanUniversityofTechnologyDepartmentofSpatial InformationandPlanningSchoolofResourcesandEnvironmentEngineeringAssessment of hydromorphological alterations andpressuresinEurope(case study-Romania)GabrielaAdinaMOROSANU-MITOSERIUInstituteofGeographyoftheRomanianAcademy,Romaniagabriela.adina.m@gmail.com

Assessment of hydromorphological alterations and pressures in Europe (case study – Romania) 1 Wuhan University of Technology Department of Spatial Information and Planning School of Resources and Environment Engineering Gabriela Adina MOROȘANU-MITOȘERIU gabriela.adina.m@gmail.com Institute of Geography of the Romanian Academy, Romania

ContextSand mining is aproblem perpetuated for decades around the world, thatpresses on riparian ecosystems, but has onlyrecentlycometothescientific spotlight Whattypesofinterventions aremorepreciselyunderstoodbysand mining?Sandminingrefers to themanual/mechanical extraction of sedimentaryaggregates (sand and gravel)carried out mainly through openpits inriver environments(in-stream,meanders andfloodplains)oralongbeaches and inland dunes.In themost general sense,sand canbe alsodredged from thebeds of lakes, seas and oceans.Globalimportance Local, regional and trans-boundary threatSand extraction and dredging are essential for theBeing pursued actively for its economic significance,sandmining howeverhas thetendency to disrupt thedevelopment of infrastructure projects worldwide,sandenvironmental balanceand the ecologies gravelybeing the main aggregateused in constructionmortar.How isthis typeofanthropogenic activity on rivers regulated?With a fewcountries having enacted specific bindingRules on Sand Mining and Environment ImpactAssessment (EIA)mandates,this age-old practice is still largely covered under the non-specific tutelage of general mining legislations and other soft law instrumentslikebroad environmentalguidelines lackingvigorous implementation.2

Context Sand mining is a problem perpetuated for decades around the world, that presses on riparian ecosystems, but has only recently come to the scientific spotlight. Sand mining refers to the manual/mechanical extraction of sedimentary aggregates (sand and gravel) carried out mainly through open pits in river environments (in-stream, meanders and floodplains) or along beaches and inland dunes. In the most general sense, sand can be also dredged from the beds of lakes, seas and oceans.  What types of interventions are more precisely understood by sand mining? Being pursued actively for its economic significance, sand mining however has the tendency to disrupt the environmental balance and the ecologies gravely.  How is this type of anthropogenic activity on rivers regulated? Sand extraction and dredging are essential for the development of infrastructure projects worldwide, sand being the main aggregate used in construction mortar.  Global importance  Local, regional and trans-boundary threat With a few countries having enacted specific binding Rules on Sand Mining and Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) mandates, this age-old practice is still largely covered under the non-specific tutelage of general mining legislations and other soft law instruments like broad environmental guidelines lacking vigorous implementation. 2

One extractive activity in rivers... multiple impactsEach vear. almost 5o billion tons of sand and gravel are mined. mostly due to requirements in the construction sector and to help inlandreclamation(WWF,2018)Industrialsandandgravel productionworldwide in2019inthousandtons(Statista.com)i.e.,inthefabricationofconcrete,foreachtoneofcementsixtoseventimesmoretonsof sand andgravel arerequired(USGS,2013)NorthAmericaEurope口112500口138510Latin AmericaThis growing demand for concrete makesthe sand mining the largestAustraliaextractive industry on theplanet (WWF,2018)...and Asian rivers areonthefront cover of this mining activity (mainly due to population growth and6400Africaincreasingneedforbuildingmaterial)!口137100Asia-5300=12400[Cumulativeimpactsofsandmining>ondams,hydro-sedimentarydynamics,riverinerichnessloss,etc.Sandminingalsoraisesthequestionofthesustainabilityofexploitingriverineecosystems(UNEP,2019)Acrosstheglobe,sandminingispracticed atan unevenpace.Is itaquestionofnecessity orof legislation?There is for sure a need for targeted legislation to ensure compliance with the spatial and volumetric limits imposedfor sand mining activities in different countries, to achieve the desired conservation of water and sediment resourcesandthepreservationofthehydro-morphologicalconditions

One extractive activity in rivers. multiple impacts Each year, almost 50 billion tons of sand and gravel are mined, mostly due to requirements in the construction sector and to help in land reclamation (WWF, 2018).  Cumulative impacts of sand mining  on dams, hydro-sedimentary dynamics, riverine richness loss, etc. This growing demand for concrete makes the sand mining the largest extractive industry on the planet (WWF, 2018) . and Asian rivers are on the front cover of this mining activity (mainly due to population growth and increasing need for building material)! i.e., in the fabrication of concrete, for each tone of cement, six to seven times more tons of sand and gravel are required (USGS, 2013).  Sand mining also raises the question of the sustainability of exploiting riverine ecosystems (UNEP, 2019).  Across the globe, sand mining is practiced at an uneven pace. Is it a question of necessity or of legislation? There is for sure a need for targeted legislation to ensure compliance with the spatial and volumetric limits imposed for sand mining activities in different countries, to achieve the desired conservation of water and sediment resources and the preservation of the hydro-morphological conditions. 3 112500 137100 12400 5300 6400 138510 Industrial sand and gravel production worldwide in 2019 in thousand tons (Statista.com) North America Europe Latin America Australia Africa Asia

Oneextractiveactivityinrivers...multipleimpactsWithin the European Union,in many cases,minerals areextractedfrom surfacewater.Sandusedtoreinforce thecoast isextractedfromotherseaareas,whileclayandsandusedforconcreteandbuildingareusuallyextractedfromthefloodplainsofrivers.Gravelmininghasoccurred inseveral Europeanriverbasinse.g.innorth-easternItaly,and someriversoftheCarpathians,resultinginwidespreadchanneladjustments inthelast1ooyears,inparticularincisionandnarrowing(Rinaldietal.2005;Surianetal.,2008)Physical environmentChemicalenvironmentRiverbeddeepening and wideningIncreased turbidity and total suspendedHighlightsabout impactandmanagementofsandsolids (TSS)Riverbed,bank and slopeinstabilitymininginrivers(Rentier&Cammeraat,2022)Increased erosionIncreasedconcetionsofheavmetalsReduced sand replenishment.The increasing demand for construction-gradeAltered hydrofogical tablePollutionofair,watrand soilRiverbed coarseningsandisaworldwideenvironmentalissue..Thetype of extraction influences the magnitudeofthe impactonthe environment.器.Effectsarefound onthephysical,biologicalchemicalandanthropogenicenvironment.Habitat loss and fragmentationDestruction ofinfrastructure.Effects are often widespread and cumulative andSmothered microorganismsLossofagricultural landthereforehardtoquantifyReduced respiration and photosynthesisReducedyieldoffarmersandfisheriesReduced presence of benthic organismsDevelopmentofscience-basedpoliciesforIncreased risk of waterbornediseases Nolse pollutionPoorworking circumstancessustainableminingshouldbeprioritisedBiologicalenvironmentAnthropogenicenvironment

One extractive activity in rivers. multiple impacts 4 Within the European Union, in many cases, minerals are extracted from surface water. Sand used to reinforce the coast is extracted from other sea areas, while clay and sand used for concrete and building are usually extracted from the flood plains of rivers. Gravel mining has occurred in several European river basins e.g. in north-eastern Italy, and some rivers of the Carpathians, resulting in widespread channel adjustments in the last 100 years, in particular incision and narrowing (Rinaldi et al. 2005; Surian et al., 2008) Highlights about impact and management of sand mining in rivers (Rentier & Cammeraat, 2022) • The increasing demand for construction-grade sand is a worldwide environmental issue. • The type of extraction influences the magnitude of the impact on the environment. • Effects are found on the physical, biological, chemical and anthropogenic environment. • Effects are often widespread and cumulative and therefore hard to quantify. • Development of science-based policies for sustainable mining should be prioritised

HowtheEUSvstemFunctions?TheEuropeanUnion's authoritytolegislatehas increased withtheMaastricht Treaty(1992)andtheLisbon Treaty(2oo7)bytheconfermentofpowersontheUnionbyitsmembers.UnlikeIndia,herethemembersaresovereignstateswith authority to legislate in their respective nations.And the centralisation is not as rigid as a federal or quasi-federalstate.Thus, unlike the Central Government in India,the EU in its regional set up has primary authority to legislateonenvironmental matters againstmember states.This paves wayfor uniformitywithin the system.Though‘sustainabledevelopment'hasbeenformalised asoneofEU'sfundamental goalsposttheAmsterdamtreatyso far concreteregulationshave not been framed in theenvironmental field.It is true that the European rivers arenowhere near the Indian scenario in terms of destroyed ecologies from sand mining, but a sound system must focus onprevention thanremediation.However,so far,mostly directives alonehave been enacted by the EU on environmental lines like the WaterFrameworkDirective(WFD-2000/60/EC),StrategicEnvironmentalAssessmentDirective(Directive2001/42/EC),Environmental ImpactAssessmentDirective(EIA-2011/92/EU),Habitats Directive(Council Directive92/43/EEC),Directive2oo8/1/ECconcerningintegratedpollutionpreventionandcontrol(theIPPCDirective),FloodDirective(2007/60/CE)oftheEuropeanParliamentandCouncil,etc.These directives though binding on the member states, the choice of means to achieve the results/goals specifiedtherein are at the discretion of therespective member States.This slows down and hinders immediate and effectiveenforcement

How the EU System Functions? The European Union’s authority to legislate has increased with the Maastricht Treaty (1992) and the Lisbon Treaty (2007) by the conferment of powers on the Union by its members. Unlike India, here the members are sovereign states with authority to legislate in their respective nations. And the centralisation is not as rigid as a federal or quasi-federal state. Thus, unlike the Central Government in India, the EU in its regional set up has primary authority to legislate on environmental matters against member states. This paves way for uniformity within the system. Though ‘sustainable development’ has been formalised as one of EU’s fundamental goals post the Amsterdam treaty, so far concrete ‘regulations’ have not been framed in the environmental field. It is true that the European rivers are nowhere near the Indian scenario in terms of destroyed ecologies from sand mining, but a sound system must focus on prevention than remediation. However, so far, mostly directives alone have been enacted by the EU on environmental lines like the Water Framework Directive (WFD - 2000/60/EC), Strategic Environmental Assessment Directive (Directive 2001/42/EC), Environmental Impact Assessment Directive (EIA - 2011/92/EU), Habitats Directive (Council Directive 92/43/EEC), Directive 2008/1/EC concerning integrated pollution prevention and control (the IPPC Directive), Flood Directive (2007/60/CE) of the European Parliament and Council, etc. These directives though binding on the member states, the choice of means to achieve the results/goals specified therein are at the discretion of the respective member States. This slows down and hinders immediate and effective enforcement

Application on the impact of sand mining on the environment in3 states with different age and mandate relatedto EU membership;partiallydifferent legislative systems as well:France,theUnited Kingdom &Romania1)FrenchRepublic(semi-presidentialregime)-oneofthesixfounding countries of theEU;-a decentralized unitary state comprising territories with special statutes giving them greater autonomy-this longevity of France in the European Union is also reflected in mining, environmental and other policies which haveknown gradualimplementation,togetherwith regulations risingfromanational/sovereign will2)TheUnitedKingdom (parliamentary monarchy)-EUpath(since1973to2018);-UK helped pass environmental protection laws and helped introduce the concept of "polluter pays" which still manages theenvironmental impacts oftheminingsector,-Along withrespectingEUcommitments mostlygoverned byDirectives,UK enforces theprotection of riparian areas (i.e.river habitats"protocols).It alsohas robustminerals regulationand implementationforsandand aggregatesextraction3)Romania (semi-presidentialregime)-ayoungmemberstateoftheEuropeanUnion(since2007);-pale stipulations on sand mining are provided by the Water Law (107/ 1996, updated in 2020);- sand mining impact assessment on riparian eco-systems of Romanian rivers not yet included in the national strategy for river basinsmanagement(asenforcedbyWFD-2000/60/EC)6

6 Application on the impact of sand mining on the environment in 3 states with different age and mandate related to EU membership; partially different legislative systems as well: France, the United Kingdom & Romania 1) French Republic (semi—presidential regime) - one of the six founding countries of the EU; - a decentralized unitary state comprising territories with special statutes giving them greater autonomy; - this longevity of France in the European Union is also reflected in mining, environmental and other policies which have known gradual implementation, together with regulations rising from a national/ sovereign will. 2) The United Kingdom (parliamentary monarchy) - EU path (since 1973 to 2018); - UK helped pass environmental protection laws and helped introduce the concept of "polluter pays" which still manages the environmental impacts of the mining sector; - Along with respecting EU commitments mostly governed by Directives, UK enforces the protection of riparian areas (i.e. river habitats’ protocols). It also has robust minerals regulation and implementation for sand and aggregates extraction 3) Romania (semi—presidential regime) - a young member state of the European Union (since 2007); - pale stipulations on sand mining are provided by the Water Law (107/ 1996, updated in 2020); - sand mining impact assessment on riparian eco-systems of Romanian rivers not yet included in the national strategy for river basins management (as enforced by WFD - 2000/60/EC)

CaseStudiesfromEurope:FranceThecase ofRamieres sand mine-Dromewith theRhone confluence (Commune deRompon,SEFrance),fromthe heavily removal of aggregates (until late 90's) to alluvial overburdening of the riverbed (last 20 years)20022019RiNAhighsedimenttransportcompetenceofneSince2014.sandmining companyzhotthe Drome River"Granulats Vicat"hasbeenoperatingbased ontheprojectto-renewauthorizationfor"RAMIERES"quarryDrome RiverDromeRivSand miningactivitieshavebeenextendedTheriveris embankedonthesand mines side.Thetowardstheoldnaturaldynamicsoftheriverislimitedlesssandminenewconfluenceerosion,increasedaccumulationSources of photos:Google EarthThe river management authoritiesdid not notknow how to proceed, initially,provided that thelawprohibited any extraction ofgravelwhich stagnates especially in areas where rivers meet, knowing that the objective of local officials is to extract the gravel for sale andwatercostsadjustments(JOSenat,2016)Intheevent ofafifty-yearflood, thewaterwouldpassover,withtheriskofbreaking thedikes (Bravard,2018)

Siret River (Romania) - in-stream sand mining The case of Ramières sand mine - Drôme with the Rhône confluence (Commune de Rompon, SE France), from the heavily removal of aggregates (until late 90’s) to alluvial overburdening of the riverbed (last 20 years) Source of photos: AgentGreen (24.April.2020) Case Studies from Europe: France 7  The river management authorities did not not know how to proceed, initially, provided that the law prohibited any extraction of gravel which stagnates especially in areas where rivers meet, knowing that the objective of local officials is to extract the gravel for sale and water costs adjustments (JO Sénat, 2016).  In the event of a fifty-year flood, the water would pass over, with the risk of breaking the dikes (Bravard, 2018). Agitated waters and increased turbidity will certainly have an impact on fish breeding. A high sediment transport competence of the Drôme River 2002 2019 Drôme River Drôme River The river is embanked on the sand mines side. The natural dynamics of the river is limited  less erosion, increased accumulation Sources of photos: Google Earth Since 2014, sand mining company “Granulats Vicat” has been operating based on the project to renew authorization for "RAMIERES" quarry Sand mining activities have been extended towards the confluence new . old sand mine

CaseStudiesfromEurope:France8Granulates extraction inhumid zones (alluvial plains),the environmental-legislative-economic deadlock.Case studyfromLoireRiverImportant alluvial dynamics200220192014at theconfluence betweenLoireRiverandI'Allier(central France).Atrickyreason why not stopping theaggregates extractionSourceof photos:Google EarthOn theLoire,until the7Os,themotivationbehind alluvial dredging was navigable channel maintenance.Then,sand miningbecameaventuretothe Stateandprivatecompanieswillingness toproduceaggregatesforpublic works (Rohaut,2004).Withtime,instead of stopping thepractice,by exceeding quotas and overexploitation,small gravel companies continueto operatebyvirtueoftacitpactwiththeDirectorate-General forIndustry,Researchand theEnvironment.They arealsosupportedbytheownersofthelands, whobelieve in themiraculous intervention in theriverbed mobility by sandmining

Siret River (Romania) - in-stream sand mining Granulates extraction in humid zones (alluvial plains), the environmental – legislative – economic deadlock. Case study from Loire River Source of photos: Google Earth Case Studies from Europe: France 8 Important alluvial dynamics at the confluence between Loire River and l’Allier (central France). A tricky reason why not stopping the aggregates extraction Lack of concern for practicing sand mining during the season of reproduction for riverine species  On the Loire, until the ‘70s, the motivation behind alluvial dredging was navigable channel maintenance. Then, sand mining became a venture to the State and private companies’ willingness to produce aggregates for public works (Rohaut, 2004).  With time, instead of stopping the practice, by exceeding quotas and overexploitation, small gravel companies continue to operate by virtue of tacit pact with the Directorate-General for Industry, Research and the Environment. They are also supported by the owners of the lands, who believe in the miraculous intervention in the riverbed mobility by sand mining. 2002 2014 2019

Case Studies from Europe:theUnitedKingdom9UK turns to offshore mining: a question of depleting rivers'alluvial resources or conserving floodplains?UK primary aggregates production in 2017Sand mining effects across the mouth of the River Camel from Padstow(www.gov.uk)Cornwall, UK200120198%12%66%14%Sourceofphotos:GoogleEarthEnglandScotlandNorthernIrelandWales→TheRiverCamelmouthusedtobeimpactedbysandmining具→Significantchangesin sediment suppliedtoitsestuary(alwaysundertheriskoftidalButonlyafifthoftheUKerosion)occurredasaresultofminingactivity.aggregates are mined from withintheriverine zones→therestis Sincethein-river sandminingactivityhasdiminished,theCamelRiverhas startedmarine-dredgedsandandgraveltoregain its somuch-needed alluvial transport at its mouth

UK turns to offshore mining: a question of depleting rivers’ alluvial resources or conserving floodplains? Source of photos: Google Earth Case Studies from Europe: the United Kingdom 9 But only a fifth of the UK aggregates are mined from within the riverine zones  the rest is marine – dredged sand and gravel. 2001 2019 Sand mining effects across the mouth of the River Camel from Padstow Cornwall, UK  The River Camel mouth used to be impacted by sand mining.  Significant changes in sediment supplied to its estuary (always under the risk of tidal erosion) occurred as a result of mining activity.  Since the in-river sand mining activity has diminished, the Camel River has started to regain its so much-needed alluvial transport at its mouth 66% 14% 12% 8% UK primary aggregates production in 2017 (www.gov.uk) England Scotland Northern Ireland Wales

Case Studies fromEurope:theUnitedKingdom10Between mineral extraction phase and agricultural restoration: liaising with residents and statutory bodies(e.g. Environmental agencies): the case of Longwater Gravel quarries1999GravelLongwater2017quarries,SEUKGravel mining inthefloodplainHumidzoneaccompanyingWensumriveLandreclamationandexpansionofthevillageontheoldhearthofthegravelquarrySourceofphotos:GoogleEarthIntheUK,mineralsextractionmayonlytakeplaceiftheoperatorhastheagreementofthelandownerExampleof good practices:mineralspermissionslastformanyyears, andtheremaybeaneedforperiodicreviews oftheplanningconditionsattachedtothatpermission

Between mineral extraction phase and agricultural restoration: liaising with residents and statutory bodies (e.g. Environmental agencies): the case of Longwater Gravel quarries Source of photos: Google Earth Case Studies from Europe: the United Kingdom 10 Gravel mining in the floodplain Longwater Gravel 1999 2017 quarries, SE UK  In the UK, minerals extraction may only take place if the operator has the agreement of the landowner  Example of good practices: minerals permissions last for many years, and there may be a need for periodic reviews of the planning conditions attached to that permission. Land reclamation and expansion of the village on the old hearth of the gravel quarry Humid zone accompanying Wensum river