《航海学》课程参考文献（地文资料）CHAPTER 19 THE ALMANACS

CHAPTER 19THE ALMANACSPURPOSEOFALMANACS1900.Introductionvaluesto true.The Air Almanac is intended primarily for air naviga-Celestial navigation requires accurate predictions of thetors. In general, the information is similar to the Nauticalgeographicpositions of the celestial bodies observed.TheseAlmanac,but isgiven to a precision of 1'of arc and I secondpredictionsareavailablefromthreealmanacs published annu-of time,at intervals of 10 minutes (valuesfor the sun and Ar-allyby theUnited States Naval Observatory and H.M.ies are given to a precision of 0.1).This publication isNauticalAlmanacOffice,RoyalGreenwichObservatorysuitablefor ordinary navigation at sea,but may lack the pre-TheAstronomicalAlmanacpreciselytabulatescelestialcision of theNautical Almanac,and provides GHA anddata fortheexactingrequirementsfound in several scientificdeclinationforonlythe57commonlyused navigation starsfields. Its precision is far greater than that required by celes-TheFloppyAlmanacisacomputersoftwareprogramtial navigation.Even iftheAstronomical Almanac is usedforproduced bytheU.S.Naval Observatorywhichnot onlycon-celestial navigation, it will not necessarily result in more ac-tains ephemeris data, but also computes rising, setting,andcurate fixes due to the limitations of other aspects of thetwilight problems, does sight planning given course andcelestialnavigationprocessspeed (this function includes a computer-generated star findTheNautical Almanaccontainstheastronomical informa-er centered on the observer's zenith), computesgreat circletion specificallyneeded bymarinenavigators.Information isandrumblineroutes;computescompasserrorfromcelestialtabulatedtothenearest0.1'ofarcand1secondoftime.GHAobservations; and does complete sight reduction solutions in-and declination are availablefor the sun,moon,planets,and 173cluding computer plotting and weighted analysis of thestars,aswell as corrections necessaryto reducetheobservedLOP's. The Floppy Almanac is in DOS format.FORMATOFTHENAUTICALANDAIRALMANACS1901.NauticalAlmanacat UT1200 of themiddleday is listed at the topof the col-umn,TheUT of transitacrossthecelestial meridianofThemajorportionoftheNautical AlmanacisdevotedtoGreenwichislistedas“Mer.Pass."Thevalueforthefirstpoint of Aries for the middle of the three days is listed to thehourly tabulations of Greenwich Hour Angle (GHA) and decli-nearest O.I'atthebottomoftheAriescolumn.Thetime ofnation,tothenearestO.I'ofarc.On eachsetoffacingpages.transit ofthe planets for themiddle day is given to thenearestinformation is listedforthree consecutivedays.Ontheleft-handwholeminute,withSHA(atUT0000ofthemiddleday)topage, successive columns list GHA of Aries( ), and boththe nearest o.1,below the list of stars.For the sun and moon,GHA and declination of Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Satum, fol-the time of transit to thenearest whole minute is given forlowed by the Sidereal Hour Angle (SHA)and declination of 57eachday.Forthemoon,both upperand lowertransits arestars. The GHA and declination of the sun and moon, and thegiven.This information is tabulated below the rising, setting,horizontal parallax of themoon,are listed on theright-handand twilightinformation.Also listed,aretheequationoftimepage.Whereapplicable,thequantities vandd aregiventoassistfor oh and 12h, and the age and phase ofthe moon. Equationininterpolation.Thequantityvisthedifferencebetweentheac-tual change of GHA in1 hour and a constant value used in theof time is listed, without sign,to the nearestwhole secondinterpolation tables, while d is the change in declination in 1Age is given to the nearest whole day.Phase is given bysymbol.hour.Both v and d are listed to the nearest O.1'The maintabulation is preceded by a list of religiousTo the right of the moon data is listed the Local MeanTime(LMT)of sunrise, sunset,and beginning and ending ofand civil holidays,phases ofthe Moon,a calendar, infor-mation on eclipses occurring during the year,and notesnautical and civil twilightforlatitudesfrom72°Nto 60°SThe LMT ofmoonrise and moonset at the same latitudes isand a diagramgiving information on the planetsThe main tabulation is followed by explanations and ex-listed for eachof thethreedaysfor which other informationisgiven,andfor thefollowingday.Magnitude ofeachplanetamples.Next arefour pages ofstandard times(zone299

299 CHAPTER 19 THE ALMANACS PURPOSE OF ALMANACS 1900. Introduction Celestial navigation requires accurate predictions of the geographic positions of the celestial bodies observed. These predictions are available from three almanacs published annu￾ally by the United States Naval Observatory and H. M. Nautical Almanac Office, Royal Greenwich Observatory. The Astronomical Almanac precisely tabulates celestial data for the exacting requirements found in several scientific fields. Its precision is far greater than that required by celes￾tial navigation. Even if the Astronomical Almanac is used for celestial navigation, it will not necessarily result in more ac￾curate fixes due to the limitations of other aspects of the celestial navigation process. The Nautical Almanac contains the astronomical informa￾tion specifically needed by marine navigators. Information is tabulated to the nearest 0.1’ of arc and 1 second of time. GHA and declination are available for the sun, moon, planets, and 173 stars, as well as corrections necessary to reduce the observed values to true. The Air Almanac is intended primarily for air naviga￾tors. In general, the information is similar to the Nautical Almanac, but is given to a precision of 1’ of arc and 1 second of time, at intervals of 10 minutes (values for the sun and Ar￾ies are given to a precision of 0.1’). This publication is suitable for ordinary navigation at sea, but may lack the pre￾cision of the Nautical Almanac, and provides GHA and declination for only the 57 commonly used navigation stars. The Floppy Almanac is a computer software program produced by the U.S. Naval Observatory which not only con￾tains ephemeris data, but also computes rising, setting, and twilight problems; does sight planning given course and speed (this function includes a computer-generated star find￾er centered on the observer’s zenith); computes great circle and rumb line routes; computes compass error from celestial observations; and does complete sight reduction solutions in￾cluding computer plotting and weighted analysis of the LOP’s. The Floppy Almanac is in DOS format. FORMAT OF THE NAUTICAL AND AIR ALMANACS 1901. Nautical Almanac The major portion of the Nautical Almanac is devoted to hourly tabulations of Greenwich Hour Angle (GHA) and decli￾nation, to the nearest 0.1' of arc. On each set of facing pages, information is listed for three consecutive days. On the left-hand page, successive columns list GHA of Aries( ), and both GHA and declination of Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, fol￾lowed by the Sidereal Hour Angle (SHA) and declination of 57 stars. The GHA and declination of the sun and moon, and the horizontal parallax of the moon, are listed on the right-hand page. Where applicable, the quantities v and d are given to assist in interpolation. The quantity v is the difference between the ac￾tual change of GHA in 1 hour and a constant value used in the interpolation tables, while d is the change in declination in 1 hour. Both v and d are listed to the nearest 0.1'. To the right of the moon data is listed the Local Mean Time (LMT) of sunrise, sunset, and beginning and ending of nautical and civil twilight for latitudes from 72°N to 60°S. The LMT of moonrise and moonset at the same latitudes is listed for each of the three days for which other information is given, and for the following day. Magnitude of each planet at UT 1200 of the middle day is listed at the top of the col￾umn. The UT of transit across the celestial meridian of Greenwich is listed as “Mer. Pass.”. The value for the first point of Aries for the middle of the three days is listed to the nearest 0.1' at the bottom of the Aries column. The time of transit of the planets for the middle day is given to the nearest whole minute, with SHA (at UT 0000 of the middle day) to the nearest 0.1', below the list of stars. For the sun and moon, the time of transit to the nearest whole minute is given for each day. For the moon, both upper and lower transits are given. This information is tabulated below the rising, setting, and twilight information. Also listed, are the equation of time for 0h and 12h, and the age and phase of the moon. Equation of time is listed, without sign, to the nearest whole second. Age is given to the nearest whole day. Phase is given by symbol. The main tabulation is preceded by a list of religious and civil holidays, phases of the Moon, a calendar, infor￾mation on eclipses occurring during the year, and notes and a diagram giving information on the planets. The main tabulation is followed by explanations and ex￾amples. Next are four pages of standard times (zone

300THE ALMANACSdescriptions).Starcharts arenext,followedbya list of173However,in theAir Almanac values are listedat intervals of10stars in order of increasing SHA.This list includes the starsminutes,toaprecisionofo.I'forthesunandAries,andtoaprecision of I' for the moon and the planets. Values are given for thegiven on the daily pages. It gives the SHA and declination-each month,and themagnitude.Stars are listed byBayer'ssun,first pointof Aries(GHAonly),thethree navigational plan-name and also by popular name where applicable.Followingets mostfavorably located forobservation,and the moon.Thethestar list arethePolaristables.Thesetables givetheazi-magnitudeofeachplanetlisted isgivenatthetopofits columnmuth and the corrections to be applied to the observedand thephaseofthemoon isgivenatthetopof itscolumn.Val-ues for the first 12 hours of the day are given on the right-handaltitudetofindthelatitudeFollowing the Polaris table is a section that gives for-page,andthoseforthesecond halfofthedayontheback.Inad-mulasandexamplesfortheentryofalmanacdata,thedition, eachpage has a table of themoon's parallax inaltitudecalculations that reduce a sight, and a method of solutionand below this the semidiameter of the sun, and boththe semid-forposition,all forusewitha calculator ormicrocomputer.iameterand ageofthemoon.EachdailypageincludestheLMTThisisfollowedbyconcisesightreductiontables.within-ofmoonriseandmoonsetandadifferencecolumntofindthestructions and examples, for use when a calculator ortimeofmoonriseandmoonsetatanylongitudetraditional sight reduction tables are not available.TabularCritical tables forinterpolationfor GHAaregivenonprecision of the concisetables is one minute ofarc.the insidefront cover,which alsohas an alphabetical listingNext is a table for converting arc to time units. This isof the stars,with thenumber,magnitude,SHA,and decli-followed by a 30-page table called "Increments and Correc-nationofeach.Thesameinterpolationtableandstarlistaretions."usedforinterpolationofGHAanddeclination.Thisprinted on a flap which follows thedaily pages.This flaptableisprinted on tinted paper,for quick location.Thenalso contains a star chart,a star index in order of decreasingcometablesfor interpolatingfortimesofrise,set,andtwiSHA,and a tablefor interpolation ofthe LMT of moonriselight,followedbytwoindices ofthe57stars listed ontheandmoonsetforlongitudedaily pages, one index in alphabetical order,and the otherFollowing the flap are instructionsfortheuseof theal-inorderofdecreasingSHAmanac; a list of symbols and abbreviations in English,Sextant altitude corrections aregiven at the front andFrench,and Spanish;a listof timedifferences betweenback of the almanac.Tables for the sun, stars,and planets,Greenwich andotherplaces,skydiagrams,aplanet locationandadiptable,aregiven on theinsidefrontcoverand fac-diagram; starrecognitiondiagramsfor periscopicsextantsing page,with an additional correctionfor nonstandardsunrise, sunset, and civil twilight tables, rising, setting, andtemperature and atmospheric pressure onthefollowingdepression graphs; semiduration graphs of sunlight, twilightpage.Tables for the moon,and an abbreviated diptable,areand moonlight in high latitudes, percentage of the moon illu-given on the inside back cover and facing page.Correctionsminated at 6 and 18 hours UT daily,a list of 173 stars byfor the sun, stars, and planets for altitudes greater than 100numberandBayer'sname(alsopopularnamewherethereisand thediptable,arerepeated on one side ofa loosebook-one),givingtheSHAanddeclinationeachmonth(toapreci-mark.Thestarindicesarerepeatedontheothersidesion of 0.1'),and themagnitude;tables for interpolation ofGHA sun and GHA ;a table for converting arc to time;1902.AirAlmanaca singlePolaris correction table:an aircraft standard domere-fraction table, a refraction correction table,a CoriolisAs in the Nautical Almanac,the major portion ofthe Air Al-correctiontable,and ontheinsideback cover,a correctionta-manac is devoted to a tabulation of GHA and declinationblefor dipofthehorizonUSINGTHE ALMANACS1903.EnteringArgumentsCorrectiontotimeCorrectiontoThetime used as an entering argument in the almanacssignalslongitudeis 12h+GHA of themean sunand is denoted by UT.Thisscale maydifferfrom thebroadcast timesignalsby an0.2'toeast-0.7s to -0.9samount which, ifignored, will introduce an error ofup to o.2'0.1'to east-0.6s to -0.3sin longitudedetermined from astronomical observations.nocorrection-0.2sto+0.2sThe difference arises because thetime argument depends on0.I'to west+0.3s to +0.6sthe variable rate of rotation of theearth while the broadcast0.2'towest+0.7s to +0.9stime signals arenowbased onatomictime.StepadjustmentsofexactlyonesecondaremadetothetimesignalsasrequiredTable1903.Correctionsto time.(primarilyat24honDecember31andJune30)sothatthe

300 THE ALMANACS descriptions). Star charts are next, followed by a list of 173 stars in order of increasing SHA. This list includes the stars given on the daily pages. It gives the SHA and declination￾each month, and the magnitude. Stars are listed by Bayer’s name and also by popular name where applicable. Following the star list are the Polaris tables. These tables give the azi￾muth and the corrections to be applied to the observed altitude to find the latitude. Following the Polaris table is a section that gives for￾mulas and examples for the entry of almanac data, the calculations that reduce a sight, and a method of solution for position, all for use with a calculator or microcomputer. This is followed by concise sight reduction tables, with in￾structions and examples, for use when a calculator or traditional sight reduction tables are not available. Tabular precision of the concise tables is one minute of arc. Next is a table for converting arc to time units. This is followed by a 30-page table called “Increments and Correc￾tions,” used for interpolation of GHA and declination. This table is printed on tinted paper, for quick location. Then come tables for interpolating for times of rise, set, and twi￾light; followed by two indices of the 57 stars listed on the daily pages, one index in alphabetical order, and the other in order of decreasing SHA. Sextant altitude corrections are given at the front and back of the almanac. Tables for the sun, stars, and planets, and a dip table, are given on the inside front cover and fac￾ing page, with an additional correction for nonstandard temperature and atmospheric pressure on the following page. Tables for the moon, and an abbreviated dip table, are given on the inside back cover and facing page. Corrections for the sun, stars, and planets for altitudes greater than 10°, and the dip table, are repeated on one side of a loose book￾mark. The star indices are repeated on the other side. 1902. Air Almanac As in the Nautical Almanac, the major portion of the Air Al￾manac is devoted to a tabulation of GHA and declination. However, in the Air Almanac values are listed at intervals of 10 minutes, to a precision of 0.1' for the sun and Aries, and to a pre￾cision of 1' for the moon and the planets. Values are given for the sun, first point of Aries (GHA only), the three navigational plan￾ets most favorably located for observation, and the moon. The magnitude of each planet listed is given at the top of its column, and the phase of the moon is given at the top of its column. Val￾ues for the first 12 hours of the day are given on the right-hand page, and those for the second half of the day on the back. In ad￾dition, each page has a table of the moon’s parallax in altitude, and below this the semidiameter of the sun, and both the semid￾iameter and age of the moon. Each daily page includes the LMT of moonrise and moonset; and a difference column to find the time of moonrise and moonset at any longitude. Critical tables for interpolation for GHA are given on the inside front cover, which also has an alphabetical listing of the stars, with the number, magnitude, SHA, and decli￾nation of each. The same interpolation table and star list are printed on a flap which follows the daily pages. This flap also contains a star chart, a star index in order of decreasing SHA, and a table for interpolation of the LMT of moonrise and moonset for longitude. Following the flap are instructions for the use of the al￾manac; a list of symbols and abbreviations in English, French, and Spanish; a list of time differences between Greenwich and other places; sky diagrams; a planet location diagram; star recognition diagrams for periscopic sextants; sunrise, sunset, and civil twilight tables; rising, setting, and depression graphs; semiduration graphs of sunlight, twilight, and moonlight in high latitudes; percentage of the moon illu￾minated at 6 and 18 hours UT daily; a list of 173 stars by number and Bayer’s name (also popular name where there is one), giving the SHA and declination each month (to a preci￾sion of 0.1'), and the magnitude; tables for interpolation of GHA sun and GHA ; a table for converting arc to time; a single Polaris correction table; an aircraft standard dome re￾fraction table; a refraction correction table; a Coriolis correction table; and on the inside back cover, a correction ta￾ble for dip of the horizon. USING THE ALMANACS 1903. Entering Arguments The time used as an entering argument in the almanacs is 12h + GHA of the mean sun and is denoted by UT. This scale may differ from the broadcast time signals by an amount which, if ignored, will introduce an error of up to 0.2' in longitude determined from astronomical observations. The difference arises because the time argument depends on the variable rate of rotation of the earth while the broadcast time signals are now based on atomic time. Step adjustments of exactly one second are made to the time signals as required (primarily at 24h on December 31 and June 30) so that the Correction to time signals Correction to longitude -0.7s to -0.9s 0.2' to east -0.6s to -0.3s 0.1' to east -0.2s to +0.2s no correction +0.3s to +0.6s 0.1' to west +0.7s to +0.9s 0.2' to west Table 1903. Corrections to time

301THEALMANACSdifferencebetweenthetime signals and UT,asused inthenosuchadjustmentisnecessaryforthesunandplanets.Thealmanacs,may not exceed o.9s.If observations to a preci-tabulated declination values, exceptfor the sun, are thosesion of better than 1s are required, corrections must befor the middle of the interval between the time indicatedobtainedfrom coding inthe signal,orfromother sources.and the nextfollowing timefor whicha valueisgiven,mak-Thecorrectionmaybeappliedtoeachofthetimesofobser-ing interpolation unnecessary.Thus,it is always importantvation.Alternatively.thelongitude.whendeterminedfromto take out the GHA and declination for the time immedi-observations,may be corrected by the correspondingatelybefore thetimeof observation.amountshowninTable1903.In the Air Almanac,GHA and the GHA and declina-Themain contents ofthealmanacs consistofdatafromtion of the sun are tabulated to a precision of o.1:If thesewhich the GHA and the declination of all the bodies usedvalues are extracted with thetabular precision, theInterpolafor navigation can be obtained for any instant of UT.ThetionofGHAtableontheinsidefrontcover(andflap)shouldLHAcanthenbeobtainedwiththeformulanotbeused:usethe"InterpolationofGHASun"andInterpolation ofGHAAriestables,asappropriate.Thesetablesarefound immediately preceding the Polaris Table.LHA= GHA + east longitude.1904.FindingGHAAnd Declination Of The SunLHA = GHA- west longitude.Nautical Almanac: Enter the daily page table with theForthesun,moon,and thefour navigational planetswhole hour before the given GMT, unless the exact time is athe GHA and declination are tabulated directly in the Nau-wholehour,andtakeoutthetabulatedGHAanddeclinationtical Almanac for eachhour of GMT throughout the yearAlsorecord thedvaluegiven atthebottomofthedeclinationintheAirAlmanacthevaluesaretabulatedforeachwholecolumn.Next,enterthe increments and corrections tablefor10m ofGMT.For thestars,the SHA is given,and the GHAthenumberofminutesofGMT.Ifthereareseconds,usetheisobtainedfrom:next earlier whole minute.On the line correspondingto theseconds ofGMT,extractthevaluefrom the Sun-Planets col-GHAStar=GHA+SHAStarumn.Add this to the value ofGHA from the daily page. Thisis GHA of the sun.Next, enter the correction table for thesameminutewiththedvalueandtakeoutthecorrectionThe SHA and declination of the stars changeslowlyGivethisthe signofthed valueandapply itto the declinationand may be regarded as constant over periods of severalfrom the daily page. This is the declination.days or even months if lesser accuracy is required.TheThe correction table for GHA of the Sun is based upo-SHA and declination of stars tabulated in theAirAlmanacna rate of change of 15oper hour, the average rate during amay be considered constant to a precision of 1.5'to2'fortheperiod covered by eachof thevolumesprovidingtheyear.At most times the rate differs slightly.The slight errorisminimized byadjustmentofthetabular values.Thed val-data for a whole year, with most data being closer to theSmallervalue.GHAortheGHAofthefirstpointofue is theamount that the declination changesbetween1200and1300onthemiddledayofthethreeshown.Aries (the vernal equinox),is tabulated for each hour in theNauticalAlmanacandforeachwholeiOmintheAirAlma-Air Almanac: Enter the daily page with the whole 10mnac.Permanenttableslisttheappropriateincrementstothepreceding the given GMT, unless the time is itself a wholetabulated values of GHA and declination for the minutes1Om, and extract the GHA.The declination is extractedandsecondsoftimewithoutinterpolationfromthesamelineasthetabulatedIntheNauticalAlmanac,thepermanenttableforincreGHAor,inthecaseofplanets,thetop lineoftheblockofmentsalsoincludes corrections for y,thedifferencesix. If the values extracted are rounded to the nearestbetween theactual change of GHA in one hour anda con-minute,nextenter the“Interpolation of GHA"table on thestant value used in the interpolation tables, and d, theinsidefrontcover(andflap),usingtheSun,etc."entry col-change in declination in onehour.umn, and take out the value for theremaining minutes andIn theNautical Almanac,y is always positiveunless asecondsofGMTIftheentrytimeisanexacttabulatedval-ue,usethe correction listed halfa lineabovetheentrytimenegativesign(-)isshown.ThisoccursonlyinthecaseofVenus.For the sun,thetabulated values ofGHAhavebeenAdd this correctiontotheGHAtakenfrom thedailypage.This is GHA.No adjustment of declination is needed.If theadjusted to reduceto a minimumthe errorcaused by treat-values are extracted with a precision ofo.I', the tablefor in-ing vas negligible; there is no v tabulated for the sun.terpolatingthe GHA of the sun to a precision of O.I'mustNosign is givenfor tabulated valuesofd,which isposi-beused.Again no adjustment ofdeclination is neededtive ifdeclination is increasing,and negative ifdecreasing.Thesign of a vor d value is also given to the related correction1905.Finding GHA And Declination Of The MoonIn the Air Almanac, the tabular values of the GHA ofthemoon areadjusted so that use of an interpolationtableNauticalAlmanae:Enterthedailypagetablewith thebasedonafixedrateofchangegivesrisetonegligibleerror;

THE ALMANACS 301 difference between the time signals and UT, as used in the almanacs, may not exceed 0.9s. If observations to a preci￾sion of better than 1s are required, corrections must be obtained from coding in the signal, or from other sources. The correction may be applied to each of the times of obser￾vation. Alternatively, the longitude, when determined from observations, may be corrected by the corresponding amount shown in Table 1903. The main contents of the almanacs consist of data from which the GHA and the declination of all the bodies used for navigation can be obtained for any instant of UT. The LHA can then be obtained with the formula: For the sun, moon, and the four navigational planets, the GHA and declination are tabulated directly in the Nau￾tical Almanac for each hour of GMT throughout the year; in the Air Almanac, the values are tabulated for each whole 10 m of GMT. For the stars, the SHA is given, and the GHA is obtained from: GHA Star = GHA + SHA Star. The SHA and declination of the stars change slowly and may be regarded as constant over periods of several days or even months if lesser accuracy is required. The SHA and declination of stars tabulated in the Air Almanac may be considered constant to a precision of 1.5’ to 2’ for the period covered by each of the volumes providing the data for a whole year, with most data being closer to the smaller value. GHA , or the GHA of the first point of Aries (the vernal equinox), is tabulated for each hour in the Nautical Almanac and for each whole 10m in the Air Alma￾nac. Permanent tables list the appropriate increments to the tabulated values of GHA and declination for the minutes and seconds of time. In the Nautical Almanac, the permanent table for incre￾ments also includes corrections for v, the difference between the actual change of GHA in one hour and a con￾stant value used in the interpolation tables; and d, the change in declination in one hour. In the Nautical Almanac, v is always positive unless a negative sign (-) is shown. This occurs only in the case of Venus. For the sun, the tabulated values of GHA have been adjusted to reduce to a minimum the error caused by treat￾ing v as negligible; there is no v tabulated for the sun. No sign is given for tabulated values of d, which is posi￾tive if declination is increasing, and negative if decreasing. The sign of a v or d value is also given to the related correction. In the Air Almanac, the tabular values of the GHA of the moon are adjusted so that use of an interpolation table based on a fixed rate of change gives rise to negligible error; no such adjustment is necessary for the sun and planets. The tabulated declination values, except for the sun, are those for the middle of the interval between the time indicated and the next following time for which a value is given, mak￾ing interpolation unnecessary. Thus, it is always important to take out the GHA and declination for the time immedi￾ately before the time of observation. In the Air Almanac, GHA and the GHA and declina￾tion of the sun are tabulated to a precision of 0.1’. If these values are extracted with the tabular precision, the “Interpola￾tion of GHA” table on the inside front cover (and flap) should not be used; use the “Interpolation of GHA Sun” and “Interpo￾lation of GHA Aries’ tables, as appropriate. These tables are found immediately preceding the Polaris Table. 1904. Finding GHA And Declination Of The Sun Nautical Almanac: Enter the daily page table with the whole hour before the given GMT, unless the exact time is a whole hour, and take out the tabulated GHA and declination. Also record the d value given at the bottom of the declination column. Next, enter the increments and corrections table for the number of minutes of GMT. If there are seconds, use the next earlier whole minute. On the line corresponding to the seconds of GMT, extract the value from the Sun-Planets col￾umn. Add this to the value of GHA from the daily page. This is GHA of the sun. Next, enter the correction table for the same minute with the d value and take out the correction. Give this the sign of the d value and apply it to the declination from the daily page. This is the declination. The correction table for GHA of the Sun is based upo￾na rate of change of 15° per hour, the average rate during a year. At most times the rate differs slightly. The slight error is minimized by adjustment of the tabular values. The d val￾ue is the amount that the declination changes between 1200 and 1300 on the middle day of the three shown. Air Almanac: Enter the daily page with the whole 10m preceding the given GMT, unless the time is itself a whole 10m, and extract the GHA. The declination is extracted without interpolation from the same line as the tabulated GHA or, in the case of planets, the top line of the block of six. If the values extracted are rounded to the nearest minute, next enter the “Interpolation of GHA” table on the inside front cover (and flap), using the “Sun, etc.” entry col￾umn, and take out the value for the remaining minutes and seconds of GMT. If the entry time is an exact tabulated val￾ue, use the correction listed half a line above the entry time. Add this correction to the GHA taken from the daily page. This is GHA. No adjustment of declination is needed. If the values are extracted with a precision of 0.1', the table for in￾terpolating the GHA of the sun to a precision of 0.1' must be used. Again no adjustment of declination is needed. 1905. Finding GHA And Declination Of The Moon Nautical Almanac: Enter the daily page table with the LHA = GHA + east longitude. LHA = GHA - west longitude

302THE ALMANACSwhole hour before the given GMT, unless this time is itselfrection.Givethis correction thesign ofthe dvalue,and applya wholehour, and extract thetabulated GHAanddeclina-it to the declination from the daily page to find the declinationtion.Recordthecorrespondingvanddvaluestabulatedonat the given time.the same line,and determine the sign of the d value. The vThe correction tablefor GHA of planets is based uponvalueof themoon is alwayspositive(+)and is not markedthemean rate ofthe sun,15°per hour.Thevvalue isthedif-inthealmanac.Next.entertheincrementsandcorrectionsference between 15°and the change of GHAof the planettablefor theminutes ofGMT,andon thelinefor thesec-between1200and1300onthemiddledayof thethreeondsofGMT,taketheGHAcorrectionfromthemoonshown.The d value is the amount the declination changescolumn. Then,enter the correction table for the samebetween 1200 and 1300 on the middle day.Venus is theminute with thevvalue, and extract the correction,Addonlybodylisted whicheverhasa negativevvalue.bothof these correctionstotheGHAfromthedailypageAirAlmanac:Enter thedailypagewith the whole10mThis is GHA of the moon.Then, enter the same correctionbefore thegiven GMT,unless this timeisa whole10m,andtablewiththed valueand extractthecorrection.Givethisextract the tabulated GHA anddeclination,without interpo-correction the sign of the d value and apply it to the decli-lation.Thetabulated declination is correctforthe time30mnation from the daily page.This is declination.laterthantabulated,so interpolationduringthehourfollow-The correction table for GHA of the moon is baseding tabulation is not needed for most purposes.Next, enterupontheminimum rate at whichthemoon's GHA increas-the“Interpolationof GHAtableon the insidefront coveres, 14°19.0'per hour.The v correction adjusts for theusing the“sun, etc."column, and take out the value for theactual rate.Thevvalue is the difference between the min-remainingminutes and seconds of GMT.If theentrytimeimum rateand the actual rateduringthehourfollowingis an exact tabulated value, use the correction half a linethetabulated time.Thed valueis theamountthatthedec-abovethe entrytime.Add this correction to theGHAfromlination changes during thehour followingthetabulatedthedailypage tofind the GHA at thegiven time.No adjust-time.mentofdeclinationisneeded.Air Almanac: Enter the daily page with the whole 10m1907.FindingGHAAndDeclinationOfAStarnext preceding the given GMT, unless this time is a whole1Om,and extractthetabulated GHA and thedeclinationwithout interpolation.Nextenterthe"Interpolation ofIftheGHAand declination ofeach navigational star wereGHA"table on theinsidefront cover,using the“moon"en-tabulated separately,the almanacswould be several timestheirtry column,and extractthevaluefortheremainingminutespresent size.But since thesidereal hour angle and the declina-and seconds ofGMT.If the entrytime is an exact tabulatedtion arenearly constant over several days (to thenearest 0.1)value, use the correction given half a line above the entryormonths(tothenearest1'),separatetabulationsarenotneed-time.AddthiscorrectiontotheGHAtakenfromthedailyed.Instead, the GHA of thefirst point of Aries,from whichpage to find the GHA at the given time. No adjustment ofSHA is measured,is tabulated on the daily pages,and a singledeclination is neededlisting ofSHAanddeclination isgivenforeachdoublepageofThedeclinationgiven inthetable is correctfor thetimetheNautical Almanac,andfor an entirevolume of theAirAl-5minutes later than tabulated,so that it canbe used for themanac.Finding theGHA is similar to findingthe GHA of10-minute interval without interpolation,to an accuracytothe sun,moon,and planets.meetmostrequirements.DeclinationchangesmuchmoreNautical Almanac:Enter thedaily page table with theslowly than GHA. If greater accuracy is needed, it can bewhole hour before the given GMT, unless this time is a wholeobtainedbyinterpolation,rememberingtoallowforthe5hour,and extract the tabulated GHA ofAries.Also record theminutes.tabulated SHA anddeclination ofthe starfrom the listing ontheleft-hand dailypage.Next,enter the increments and correctionstablefortheminutesofGMT,and,onthelineforthe1906.FindingGHAAndDeclinationOfAPlanetseconds of GMT,extract the GHAcorrection from theAriescolumn.Add this correction and the SHAof the star to theNautical Almanac: Enter the daily page table with theGHA P on the daily page to find the GHA ofthe star at thewholehour before the givenGMT,unless the time is a wholegiventime.Noadjustmentofdeclination is needed.hour,and extract thetabulated GHAand declination.RecordThe SHAand declination of 173 stars, including Polaristhe vvaluegiven at the bottom ofeach ofthesecolumns.Next,and the 57 listed on thedaily pages, are given for the middleenter the increments and corrections tablefor the minutes ofofeachmonth.Fora starnot listed onthedailypages,thisisGMT,andonthelineforthesecondsofGMT,taketheGHAtheonlyalmanac sourceofthis information.Interpolation incorrectionfromthesun-planetscolumn.Next,enterthecorrec-this table is not necessary for ordinary purposes of naviga-tion table with thevvalue and extract the correction,giving ittion,but is sometimes neededforpreciseresultsthesignofthevvalue.AddthefirstcorrectiontotheGHAAir Almanac: Enter the daily page with the whole 1omfrom the dailypage,and apply the second correction in accor-dance with its sign. This is GHA. Then enter the correctionbefore thegiven GMT,unless this is a whole10m, and ex-tract the tabulated GHA . Next, enter the “Interpolationtableforthesameminutewiththedvalue.andextractthecor-

302 THE ALMANACS whole hour before the given GMT, unless this time is itself a whole hour, and extract the tabulated GHA and declina￾tion. Record the corresponding v and d values tabulated on the same line, and determine the sign of the d value. The v value of the moon is always positive (+) and is not marked in the almanac. Next, enter the increments and corrections table for the minutes of GMT, and on the line for the sec￾onds of GMT, take the GHA correction from the moon column. Then, enter the correction table for the same minute with the v value, and extract the correction. Add both of these corrections to the GHA from the daily page. This is GHA of the moon. Then, enter the same correction table with the d value and extract the correction. Give this correction the sign of the d value and apply it to the decli￾nation from the daily page. This is declination. The correction table for GHA of the moon is based upon the minimum rate at which the moon’s GHA increas￾es, 14°19.0' per hour. The v correction adjusts for the actual rate. The v value is the difference between the min￾imum rate and the actual rate during the hour following the tabulated time. The d value is the amount that the dec￾lination changes during the hour following the tabulated time. Air Almanac: Enter the daily page with the whole 10m next preceding the given GMT, unless this time is a whole 10m, and extract the tabulated GHA and the declination without interpolation. Next, enter the “Interpolation of GHA” table on the inside front cover, using the “moon” en￾try column, and extract the value for the remaining minutes and seconds of GMT. If the entry time is an exact tabulated value, use the correction given half a line above the entry time. Add this correction to the GHA taken from the daily page to find the GHA at the given time. No adjustment of declination is needed. The declination given in the table is correct for the time 5 minutes later than tabulated, so that it can be used for the 10-minute interval without interpolation, to an accuracy to meet most requirements. Declination changes much more slowly than GHA. If greater accuracy is needed, it can be obtained by interpolation, remembering to allow for the 5 minutes. 1906. Finding GHA And Declination Of A Planet Nautical Almanac: Enter the daily page table with the whole hour before the given GMT, unless the time is a whole hour, and extract the tabulated GHA and declination. Record the v value given at the bottom of each of these columns. Next, enter the increments and corrections table for the minutes of GMT, and on the line for the seconds of GMT, take the GHA correction from the sun-planets column. Next, enter the correc￾tion table with the v value and extract the correction, giving it the sign of the v value. Add the first correction to the GHA from the daily page, and apply the second correction in accor￾dance with its sign. This is GHA. Then enter the correction table for the same minute with the d value, and extract the cor￾rection. Give this correction the sign of the d value, and apply it to the declination from the daily page to find the declination at the given time. The correction table for GHA of planets is based upon the mean rate of the sun, 15° per hour. The v value is the dif￾ference between 15° and the change of GHA of the planet between 1200 and 1300 on the middle day of the three shown. The d value is the amount the declination changes between 1200 and 1300 on the middle day. Venus is the only body listed which ever has a negative v value. Air Almanac: Enter the daily page with the whole 10m before the given GMT, unless this time is a whole 10m, and extract the tabulated GHA and declination, without interpo￾lation. The tabulated declination is correct for the time 30m later than tabulated, so interpolation during the hour follow￾ing tabulation is not needed for most purposes. Next, enter the “Interpolation of GHA” table on the inside front cover, using the “sun, etc.” column, and take out the value for the remaining minutes and seconds of GMT. If the entry time is an exact tabulated value, use the correction half a line above the entry time. Add this correction to the GHA from the daily page to find the GHA at the given time. No adjust￾ment of declination is needed. 1907. Finding GHA And Declination Of A Star If the GHA and declination of each navigational star were tabulated separately, the almanacs would be several times their present size. But since the sidereal hour angle and the declina￾tion are nearly constant over several days (to the nearest 0.1') or months (to the nearest 1'), separate tabulations are not need￾ed. Instead, the GHA of the first point of Aries, from which SHA is measured, is tabulated on the daily pages, and a single listing of SHA and declination is given for each double page of the Nautical Almanac, and for an entire volume of the Air Al￾manac. Finding the GHA is similar to finding the GHA of the sun, moon, and planets. Nautical Almanac: Enter the daily page table with the whole hour before the given GMT, unless this time is a whole hour, and extract the tabulated GHA of Aries. Also record the tabulated SHA and declination of the star from the listing on the left-hand daily page. Next, enter the increments and correc￾tions table for the minutes of GMT, and, on the line for the seconds of GMT, extract the GHA correction from the Aries column. Add this correction and the SHA of the star to the GHA on the daily page to find the GHA of the star at the given time. No adjustment of declination is needed. The SHA and declination of 173 stars, including Polaris and the 57 listed on the daily pages, are given for the middle of each month. For a star not listed on the daily pages, this is the only almanac source of this information. Interpolation in this table is not necessary for ordinary purposes of naviga￾tion, but is sometimes needed for precise results. Air Almanac: Enter the daily page with the whole 10m before the given GMT, unless this is a whole 10m, and ex￾tract the tabulated GHA . Next, enter the “Interpolation

303THEALMANACSof GHA"table on the inside front cover, using the“Sun,same page,extractthe SHAand declinationofthe star.Addthe GHAfrom thedaily pageand the two values takenfrometc."entrycolumn,and extractthevaluefor theremainingminutesandsecondsofGMT.Iftheentrytimeisanexactthe insidefront cover to find the GHA at the given time.Notabulated value, use the correction given half a line aboveadjustmentofdeclinationisneededthe entry time. From the tabulation at the left side of theRISING,SETTING,AND TWILIGHT1908.Rising,Setting,AndTwilightSunrise and sunset are also tabulated in the tide tables(from76°Nto60°S)InbothAirandNauticalAlmanacs,thetimesofsunrise1909.FindingTimes Of SunriseAnd Sunsetsunsetmoonrise.moonsetandtwilightinformation,atvar-ious latitudes between72°Nand 60°s,is listedtothe nearestwholeminute.Bydefinition,risingorsettingoccurswhenTofind the time of sunrise or sunset in the Nautical Al-the upper limb of the body is on the visible horizon, assum-manac, enter the tableon the dailypage, and extract theing standard refraction for zero height of eye.Because ofLMTforthelatitudenextsmallerthanyourown(unlessitisexactlythesame).Applya correctionfromTableIon al-variationsinrefractionandheightofeye.computationtoagreaterprecisionthanI minuteoftime is not justified.manac page xxxii to interpolateforaltitude, determiningIn high latitudes,someof thephenomena donot occurthe sign by inspection.Then convert LMT toZT using theduring certain periods. Symbols are used in the almanacs todifference of longitude between the local and zoneindicate:meridians.For theAirAlmanac,theprocedure is the sameas for1.Sun or moondoes notset,butremains continuouslytheNautical Almanac,exceptthattheLMTistakenfromabovethehorizon,indicatedbyan open rectanglethe tables of sunrise and sunset instead of from the daily2.Sunormoondoesnotrise,butremainscontinuouspage, and the latitude correction is by linear interpolation.lybelowthehorizon,indicated byasolidrectangleThetabulatedtimesarefortheGreenwichmeridian3.Twilight lasts all night, indicated by4 slashes (/l)Except in high latitudes near the time of the equinoxes, thetimeofsunriseandsunsetvariessolittlefromdaytodayTheNauticalAlmanacmakesnoprovisionforfindingthatnointerpolationisneededforlongitude.Inhighlati-the times of rising, setting, or twilight in polar regions. Thetudes interpolation is not always possible.Between twoAirAlmanachasgraphsforthispurpose.tabulated entries, the sun may in fact cease to set. In thisIn theNautical Almanac,sunrise,sunset, and twilightcase, the time of rising and setting is greatly influenced bytables are given only once for the middle ofthe three dayssmall variations in refraction and changes in height of eye.oneachpageopening.Fornavigational purposesthis infor-mation can be used forall threedays.Bothalmanacs have1910.TwilightmoonriseandmoonsettablesforeachdayThe tabulations are in LMT.On the zone meridian, thisMorning twilight ends at sunrise, and evening twilightis thezone time(ZT).Forevery15'of longitudetheobserv-begins at sunset The time of the darker limit can befounder'spositiondiffersfromthezonemeridian,thezonetimefrom the almanacs.Thetime of the darker limits of bothofthephenomenadiffersbyImbeinglateriftheobservercivil and nautical twilights (centerofthe sun6°and 12re-is west of the zone meridian,and earlier if east of the zonespectively,below the celestial horizon) is given in themeridian.The LMT of the phenomenavaries with latitudeNauticalAlmanac.TheAirAlmanacprovidestabulationsoftheobserver,declination of thebody,andhourangleofof civil twilight from60°S to72°N.The brightnessof thesky at any given depression of the sun below the horizonthe bodyrelative to the mean sun.The UT of the phenomenon is found from LMT by themay vary considerably from day to day,depending upon theformula:amountofcloudinesshaze.andotheratmosphericconditions. In general, the most effective period for observingUT = LMT + W Longitudestars and planets occurs when the center of the sun is be-UT=LMT-ELongitude.tween about 3°and 9below the celestial horizon.Hence,the darker limit of civil twilight occurs at about the mid-Tousethisformula,convertthelongitudetotimeusingpoint ofthis period.At thedarker limit of nautical twilight,thetableonpageiorbycomputation,andadd or subtractthe horizon is generallytoo dark forgood observations.as indicated.Apply the zone description (ZD)to find theAtthedarker limit ofastronomical twilight (center ofzonetimeofthephenomena.the sun 18below the celestial horizon), full night has set

THE ALMANACS 303 of GHA” table on the inside front cover, using the “Sun, etc.” entry column, and extract the value for the remaining minutes and seconds of GMT. If the entry time is an exact tabulated value, use the correction given half a line above the entry time. From the tabulation at the left side of the same page, extract the SHA and declination of the star. Add the GHA from the daily page and the two values taken from the inside front cover to find the GHA at the given time. No adjustment of declination is needed. RISING, SETTING, AND TWILIGHT 1908. Rising, Setting, And Twilight In both Air and Nautical Almanacs, the times of sunrise, sunset, moonrise, moonset, and twilight information, at var￾ious latitudes between 72°N and 60°S, is listed to the nearest whole minute. By definition, rising or setting occurs when the upper limb of the body is on the visible horizon, assum￾ing standard refraction for zero height of eye. Because of variations in refraction and height of eye, computation to a greater precision than 1 minute of time is not justified. In high latitudes, some of the phenomena do not occur during certain periods. Symbols are used in the almanacs to indicate: 1. Sun or moon does not set, but remains continuously above the horizon, indicated by an open rectangle. 2. Sun or moon does not rise, but remains continuous￾ly below the horizon, indicated by a solid rectangle. 3. Twilight lasts all night, indicated by 4 slashes (////). The Nautical Almanac makes no provision for finding the times of rising, setting, or twilight in polar regions. The Air Almanac has graphs for this purpose. In the Nautical Almanac, sunrise, sunset, and twilight tables are given only once for the middle of the three days on each page opening. For navigational purposes this infor￾mation can be used for all three days. Both almanacs have moonrise and moonset tables for each day. The tabulations are in LMT. On the zone meridian, this is the zone time (ZT). For every 15' of longitude the observ￾er’s position differs from the zone meridian, the zone time of the phenomena differs by 1m, being later if the observer is west of the zone meridian, and earlier if east of the zone meridian. The LMT of the phenomena varies with latitude of the observer, declination of the body, and hour angle of the body relative to the mean sun. The UT of the phenomenon is found from LMT by the formula: UT = LMT + W Longitude UT = LMT - E Longitude. To use this formula, convert the longitude to time using the table on page i or by computation, and add or subtract as indicated. Apply the zone description (ZD) to find the zone time of the phenomena. Sunrise and sunset are also tabulated in the tide tables (from 76°N to 60°S). 1909. Finding Times Of Sunrise And Sunset To find the time of sunrise or sunset in the Nautical Al￾manac, enter the table on the daily page, and extract the LMT for the latitude next smaller than your own (unless it is exactly the same). Apply a correction from Table I on al￾manac page xxxii to interpolate for altitude, determining the sign by inspection. Then convert LMT to ZT using the difference of longitude between the local and zone meridians. For the Air Almanac, the procedure is the same as for the Nautical Almanac, except that the LMT is taken from the tables of sunrise and sunset instead of from the daily page, and the latitude correction is by linear interpolation. The tabulated times are for the Greenwich meridian. Except in high latitudes near the time of the equinoxes, the time of sunrise and sunset varies so little from day to day that no interpolation is needed for longitude. In high lati￾tudes interpolation is not always possible. Between two tabulated entries, the sun may in fact cease to set. In this case, the time of rising and setting is greatly influenced by small variations in refraction and changes in height of eye. 1910. Twilight Morning twilight ends at sunrise, and evening twilight begins at sunset. The time of the darker limit can be found from the almanacs. The time of the darker limits of both civil and nautical twilights (center of the sun 6° and 12°, re￾spectively, below the celestial horizon) is given in the Nautical Almanac. The Air Almanac provides tabulations of civil twilight from 60°S to 72°N. The brightness of the sky at any given depression of the sun below the horizon may vary considerably from day to day, depending upon the amount of cloudiness, haze, and other atmospheric condi￾tions. In general, the most effective period for observing stars and planets occurs when the center of the sun is be￾tween about 3° and 9° below the celestial horizon. Hence, the darker limit of civil twilight occurs at about the mid￾point of this period. At the darker limit of nautical twilight, the horizon is generally too dark for good observations. At the darker limit of astronomical twilight (center of the sun 18° below the celestial horizon), full night has set

304THEALMANACSin.The time of this twilight is given in theAstronomical Al-times, and thelongitude,entertableIl ofthe almanac on themanac.Its approximatevalue can be determined bysamepageandtakeoutthecorrection.Applythis correctionto the LMT of moonriseormoonsetattheGreenwich merid-extrapolationintheNauticalAlmanac.notingthatthedura-tion of thedifferentkinds of twilight is notproportional toian on thegiven datetofind theLMTat theposition of thethe number of degrees of depression at the darker limit.observer.The sign to begiven the correction is such as toMore precise determination of the time at which the centermake the corrected time fall between the times for the twoofthesunisanygivennumberofdegreesbelowtheceles-dates between which interpolation is being made.This istialhorizoncanbedeterminedbvalarge-scalediagramonnearly always positive (+) in west longitude and negative ()in east longitude.Convert the corrected LMTtoZT.theplaneofthecelestialmeridian.orbvcomputation.Du-ration oftwilight in latitudes higher than 65N isgiven in aTofind thetime ofmoonriseormoonset bytheAirAl-graph in the Air Almanac.manacforthegivendate,determineLMTfortheobserver'sIn bothNautical and AirAlmanacs, themethod offind-latitude at theGreenwich meridian in the same manner asing the darker limitoftwilight is the sameas that for sunrisewiththeNautical Almanac,exceptthat linear interpolationand sunset.ismadedirectlyfromthemaintables,sincenointerpolationSometimes in high latitudes the sun does not rise buttable is provided.Extract, also, the value from the"Diff"twilight occurs.This is indicated in the Air Almanac by acolumn to the right of the moonrise and moonset column,interpolating if necessary.This“Diff"is one-fourth ofone-solid black rectangle symbol in the sunrise and sunset col-umn.To find the time of beginning of morning twilighthalfofthe daily difference.The error introduced by this ap-subtracthalfthedurationoftwilightasobtainedfromtheproximation is generally not more than a few minutes,duration of twilightgraph from thetime of meridiantransitalthough it increases with latitude. Using this difference,of the sun; and for the time of ending of evening twilight.and the longitude,enter the“Interpolation of Moonrise,add itto thetime of meridian transit.TheLMT ofmeridianMoonsettableonflapF4of theAirAlmanac and extractthe correction.The Air Almanac recommendstaking thetransitneverdiffers bymorethan16.4m(approximately)correctionfrom this tablewithout interpolation.Theresultsfrom 1200.The actual time on any date can be determinedthusobtained aresufficientlyaccurateforordinarypurpos-fromthealmanac.es of navigation.If greater accuracyisdesired,thecorrectioncanbetakenbyinterpolationHowever.since1911.MoonriseAndMoonsetthe“Diff."itselfisanapproximation,theNauticalAlmanacor computation should beused if accuracyis a consider-Finding thetimeofmoonriseandmoonset is similartoation.Apply the correction to the LMT of moonrise orfinding thetime of sunrise and sunset,with one importantmoonset at the Greenwich meridian on the given date todifference.Becauseof themoon's rapid change ofdeclina-find theLMTatthepositionof theobserver.Thecorrectiontion, and its fast eastward motion relativeto the sun, theis positive(+)forwest longitude,and negative (-)foreasttimeofmoonriseandmoonsetvariesconsiderablyfromdaylongitude, unless the“Diff."on the daily page is precededtoday.These changes of position on the celestial sphere areby the negative sign (-),when the correction is negative(-)continuous,asmoonriseandmoonsetoccur successivelyatforwest longitude,and positive (+)for east longitude.If thevarious longitudes around the earth.Therefore,the changetime is near midnight, record the date at each step, as in thein time is distributed over all longitudes.For preciseresults.NauticalAlmanacsolution.itwouldbenecessarytocomputethetimeofthephenome-As with the sun,there are times in high latitudes when in-na at any given placeby lengthy complex calculation.Forterpolation is inaccurate or impossible. At such periods, theordinarypurposesof navigation,however,itis sufficientlytimes ofthe phenomena themselves are uncertain,but an apaccuratetointerpolatebetweenconsecutivemoonrisesorproximateanswercanbe obtained bythemoonlightgraph inmoonsets at theGreenwich meridian.Since apparent mo-theAirAlmanac.orbycomputation.Withthemoon.thiscon-tionofthemooniswestward,relativetoanobserveronthedition occurs when the moon rises or sets at one latitude, butearth, interpolation in west longitude is between the phe-notatthenexthighertabulated latitude,aswiththesun.Italsonomenon on thegivendateandthefollowing one.Ineastoccurswhenthemoonrisesorsetsononeday.butnotonthelongitudeitis betweenthephenomenononthegivendatepreceding orfollowing day.This latter condition is indicated inand the preceding one.the Air Almanac by the symbol *in the“Diff."column.Tofind thetime of moonriseormoonset in the NauticalAlmanac,enter the daily-pagetablewithlatitude,and extractBecauseoftheeastwardrevolutionof themoonaroundthe LMT for the tabulated latitude next smaller than the ob-the earth,there is one day each synodical month(29/days)when themoon doesnot rise,andonedaywhen itdoesserver's latitude (unless this is an exact tabulated value)Apply a correction from table Iof almanac pagexxxii to in-not set. These occur near last quarter and first quarter,re-terpolateforlatitude,determiningthesignofthecorrectionspectively.Sincethisdayisnotthesameatall latitudesoratby inspectionRepeat this procedurefor the dayfollowingall longitudes,thetime ofmoonriseormoonsetfoundfromthegivendate,ifin west longitude; orfortheday preceding,thealmanacmayoccasionallybetheprecedingorsucceed-if in east longitude.Using thedifference between these twoing one to that desired.When interpolating nearmidnight

304 THE ALMANACS in. The time of this twilight is given in the Astronomical Al￾manac. Its approximate value can be determined by extrapolation in the Nautical Almanac, noting that the dura￾tion of the different kinds of twilight is not proportional to the number of degrees of depression at the darker limit. More precise determination of the time at which the center of the sun is any given number of degrees below the celes￾tial horizon can be determined by a large-scale diagram on the plane of the celestial meridian, or by computation. Du￾ration of twilight in latitudes higher than 65°N is given in a graph in the Air Almanac. In both Nautical and Air Almanacs, the method of find￾ing the darker limit of twilight is the same as that for sunrise and sunset. Sometimes in high latitudes the sun does not rise but twilight occurs. This is indicated in the Air Almanac by a solid black rectangle symbol in the sunrise and sunset col￾umn. To find the time of beginning of morning twilight, subtract half the duration of twilight as obtained from the duration of twilight graph from the time of meridian transit of the sun; and for the time of ending of evening twilight, add it to the time of meridian transit. The LMT of meridian transit never differs by more than 16.4m (approximately) from 1200. The actual time on any date can be determined from the almanac. 1911. Moonrise And Moonset Finding the time of moonrise and moonset is similar to finding the time of sunrise and sunset, with one important difference. Because of the moon’s rapid change of declina￾tion, and its fast eastward motion relative to the sun, the time of moonrise and moonset varies considerably from day to day. These changes of position on the celestial sphere are continuous, as moonrise and moonset occur successively at various longitudes around the earth. Therefore, the change in time is distributed over all longitudes. For precise results, it would be necessary to compute the time of the phenome￾na at any given place by lengthy complex calculation. For ordinary purposes of navigation, however, it is sufficiently accurate to interpolate between consecutive moonrises or moonsets at the Greenwich meridian. Since apparent mo￾tion of the moon is westward, relative to an observer on the earth, interpolation in west longitude is between the phe￾nomenon on the given date and the following one. In east longitude it is between the phenomenon on the given date and the preceding one. To find the time of moonrise or moonset in the Nautical Almanac, enter the daily-page table with latitude, and extract the LMT for the tabulated latitude next smaller than the ob￾server’s latitude (unless this is an exact tabulated value). Apply a correction from table I of almanac page xxxii to in￾terpolate for latitude, determining the sign of the correction by inspection. Repeat this procedure for the day following the given date, if in west longitude; or for the day preceding, if in east longitude. Using the difference between these two times, and the longitude, enter table II of the almanac on the same page and take out the correction. Apply this correction to the LMT of moonrise or moonset at the Greenwich merid￾ian on the given date to find the LMT at the position of the observer. The sign to be given the correction is such as to make the corrected time fall between the times for the two dates between which interpolation is being made. This is nearly always positive (+) in west longitude and negative (-) in east longitude. Convert the corrected LMT to ZT. To find the time of moonrise or moonset by the Air Al￾manac for the given date, determine LMT for the observer’s latitude at the Greenwich meridian in the same manner as with the Nautical Almanac, except that linear interpolation is made directly from the main tables, since no interpolation table is provided. Extract, also, the value from the “Diff.” column to the right of the moonrise and moonset column, interpolating if necessary. This “Diff.” is one-fourth of one￾half of the daily difference. The error introduced by this ap￾proximation is generally not more than a few minutes, although it increases with latitude. Using this difference, and the longitude, enter the “Interpolation of Moonrise, Moonset” table on flap F4 of the Air Almanac and extract the correction. The Air Almanac recommends taking the correction from this table without interpolation. The results thus obtained are sufficiently accurate for ordinary purpos￾es of navigation. If greater accuracy is desired, the correction can be taken by interpolation. However, since the “Diff.” itself is an approximation, the Nautical Almanac or computation should be used if accuracy is a consider￾ation. Apply the correction to the LMT of moonrise or moonset at the Greenwich meridian on the given date to find the LMT at the position of the observer. The correction is positive (+) for west longitude, and negative (-) for east longitude, unless the “Diff.” on the daily page is preceded by the negative sign (-), when the correction is negative (-) for west longitude, and positive (+) for east longitude. If the time is near midnight, record the date at each step, as in the Nautical Almanac solution. As with the sun, there are times in high latitudes when in￾terpolation is inaccurate or impossible. At such periods, the times of the phenomena themselves are uncertain, but an ap￾proximate answer can be obtained by the moonlight graph in the Air Almanac, or by computation. With the moon, this con￾dition occurs when the moon rises or sets at one latitude, but not at the next higher tabulated latitude, as with the sun. It also occurs when the moon rises or sets on one day, but not on the preceding or following day. This latter condition is indicated in the Air Almanac by the symbol * in the “Diff.” column. Because of the eastward revolution of the moon around the earth, there is one day each synodical month (29 1/2 days) when the moon does not rise, and one day when it does not set. These occur near last quarter and first quarter, re￾spectively. Since this day is not the same at all latitudes or at all longitudes, the time of moonrise or moonset found from the almanac may occasionally be the preceding or succeed￾ing one to that desired. When interpolating near midnight

305THE ALMANACScaution will prevent an error.below the horizon, and if in the area marked “no twilightnor sunlight,"the sun remains more than 6°belowthe hori-Theeffect of therevolution of themoon around thezon throughout the entire day.earth isto causethemoonto rise or set laterfromdaytoday.Thedailyretardation dueto thiseffectdoes notdiffergreatlyThe“Semiduration of Moonlight"graph gives thefrom 50m.However,thechange in declination ofthemoonnumberofhoursbetweenmoonriseandmeridiantransitormay increase or decrease this effect.This effect increasesbetween meridian transit and moonset.The dot scale nearwith latitude, and in extreme conditions it may begreaterthe top of the graph indicates the LMT of meridian transit,eachdot representing one hour.Thephase symbols indicatethantheeffectduetorevolutionofthemoon.Hence.thein-the date on which the principal moon phases occur, thetervalbetweensuccessivemoonrisesormoonsetsismoreerratic in high latitudes than in lowlatitudes.When the twoopen circle indicatingfull moon andthedark circle indicat-effects actinthe samedirection,dailydifferences canbeing new moon.If the intersection of the vertical datelinequite large.When they act in opposite directions, they areand thehorizontal latitude linefalls in the“moonabove ho-rizon"or"moonbelowhorizonarea,themoonremainssmall.and whentheeffectduetochangeindeclinationisabove or belowthe horizon,respectively,for the entire 24largerthanthatduetorevolution,themoon sets earlier onsucceeding days.This condition isreflected in theAir Alma-hours of the day.nac by a negative"Diff."Ifthis happens near the lastquarterIfapproximations ofthetimesofmoonriseandmoon-orfirstquarter,twomoonrisesormoonsetsmightoccuronset are sufficient,the semiduration ofmoonlight istaken forthe same day,one afewminutesafter thedaybegins,and thethe time of meridian passage and can be used without ad-otherafewminutes before itends,as on June19,wheretwojustment. When as estimated time of risefalls on thetimesare listed inthesamespace.preceding day,that phenomenon may berecalculated usingInterpolation for longitude is always made betweenthemeridianpassageand semidurationforthe dayfollow-consecutive moonrises or moonsets, regardless of the daysing.When an estimated time of set falls on the followingon which they fall.day.thatphenomenonmayberecalculatedusingmeridianBeyond thenorthern limits of the almanacs thevaluespassageand semidurationforthepreceding day.Formorecan be obtained from a series of graphs given near the backaccurateresults (seldom justified),thetimes on the requireddate and the adjacent date (the following date in W longi-of theAir Almanac.Forhigh latitudes,graphs are used in-stead of tables because graphs give a clearer picture oftude and the preceding date in E longitude) should beconditions, which may change radically with relatively lit-determined,andaninterpolationmadeforlongitude.asinany latitude,sincethe intervalsgiven arefor the Greenwichtle change in position or date.Under these conditionsmeridianinterpolationtopracticalprecision issimplerbygraphthanby table. In those parts of the graph which are difficult toSunlight, twilight, and moonlightgraphs are not givenread, the times of the phenomena's occurrence are uncer-for south latitudes.Beyond latitude 65s,the northerntain,being altered considerably by a relatively small changehemispheregraphs canbe usedfor determiningthe semidu-inrefractionorheightofeye.ration or duration, by using the vertical dateline for a dayOn all ofthese graphs, any given latitude is representedwhen the declination has the same numerical value but op-by a horizontal line and any given date by a vertical line.Atposite sign.The time of meridian transit and the phase ofthe intersection of thesetwo lines the duration is read fromthemoon are determined as explained above, using thecor-the curves, interpolating by eye between curves.rectdate.Betweenlatitudes60°Sand65oS.thesolutionisThe"Semiduration of Sunlight"graph gives the nummadeby interpolation between thetables and thegraphs.ber of hours between sunrise and meridian transit orOthermethods of solution of these phenomena arebetween meridian transit and sunset.The dot scale near theavailable.TheTideTablestabulatesunriseandsunsetfromtop of thegraph indicates the LMT of meridian transit, thelatitude76°Nto60°.Semidurationorduration canbede-time represented by the minute dot nearest the vertical date-termined graphically using a diagram on the plane of thelinebeingused.Iftheintersectionoccursintheareamarkedcelestialmeridian,orbycomputation.When computation is"sun above horizon,"the sun does not set, and if in the areaused, solution is made for the meridian angle at which themarkedsunbelowhorizon."thesundoesnotrise.required negative altitude occurs.The meridian angle ex-The“Duration of Twilight"graph gives the number ofpressed intime units isthe semiduration in thecaseofhoursbetweenthebeginningofmorningciviltwilight(cen-sunrise,sunset.moonrise,andmoonset:andthesemiduraterof sun 6belowthehorizon)and sunrise,orbetweention of the combined sunlight and twilight,orthetime fromsunset and the end of evening civil twilight.If the sun doesmeridian transit at which morning twilight begins ornotrise,buttwilight occurs,thetimetakenfromthegrapheveningtwilightends.For sunriseand sunsetthealtitudeis half the total length of the single twilight period, or theused is(-)50'.Allowanceforheightof eyecanbemadebynumber of hours from beginning of morningtwilighttoalgebraicallysubtracting(numericallyadding)thedipcorLAN, or from LANto end of evening twilight.If the inter-rection from this altitude.The altitude used for twilight is (-section occurs in the area marked “continuous twilight or6°()12or(-)18°forcivil,nautical,orastronomicaltwi-sunlight,"thecenter of the sun does not move more than 60light, respectively.The altitude used for moonrise and

THE ALMANACS 305 caution will prevent an error. The effect of the revolution of the moon around the earth is to cause the moon to rise or set later from day to day. The daily retardation due to this effect does not differ greatly from 50m. However, the change in declination of the moon may increase or decrease this effect. This effect increases with latitude, and in extreme conditions it may be greater than the effect due to revolution of the moon. Hence, the in￾terval between successive moonrises or moonsets is more erratic in high latitudes than in low latitudes. When the two effects act in the same direction, daily differences can be quite large. When they act in opposite directions, they are small, and when the effect due to change in declination is larger than that due to revolution, the moon sets earlier on succeeding days. This condition is reflected in the Air Alma￾nac by a negative “Diff.” If this happens near the last quarter or first quarter, two moonrises or moonsets might occur on the same day, one a few minutes after the day begins, and the other a few minutes before it ends, as on June 19, where two times are listed in the same space. Interpolation for longitude is always made between consecutive moonrises or moonsets, regardless of the days on which they fall. Beyond the northern limits of the almanacs the values can be obtained from a series of graphs given near the back of the Air Almanac. For high latitudes, graphs are used in￾stead of tables because graphs give a clearer picture of conditions, which may change radically with relatively lit￾tle change in position or date. Under these conditions interpolation to practical precision is simpler by graph than by table. In those parts of the graph which are difficult to read, the times of the phenomena’s occurrence are uncer￾tain, being altered considerably by a relatively small change in refraction or height of eye. On all of these graphs, any given latitude is represented by a horizontal line and any given date by a vertical line. At the intersection of these two lines the duration is read from the curves, interpolating by eye between curves. The “Semiduration of Sunlight” graph gives the num￾ber of hours between sunrise and meridian transit or between meridian transit and sunset. The dot scale near the top of the graph indicates the LMT of meridian transit, the time represented by the minute dot nearest the vertical date￾line being used. If the intersection occurs in the area marked “sun above horizon,” the sun does not set; and if in the area marked “sun below horizon,” the sun does not rise. The “Duration of Twilight” graph gives the number of hours between the beginning of morning civil twilight (cen￾ter of sun 6° below the horizon) and sunrise, or between sunset and the end of evening civil twilight. If the sun does not rise, but twilight occurs, the time taken from the graph is half the total length of the single twilight period, or the number of hours from beginning of morning twilight to LAN, or from LAN to end of evening twilight. If the inter￾section occurs in the area marked “continuous twilight or sunlight,” the center of the sun does not move more than 6° below the horizon, and if in the area marked “no twilight nor sunlight,” the sun remains more than 6° below the hori￾zon throughout the entire day. The “Semiduration of Moonlight” graph gives the number of hours between moonrise and meridian transit or between meridian transit and moonset. The dot scale near the top of the graph indicates the LMT of meridian transit, each dot representing one hour. The phase symbols indicate the date on which the principal moon phases occur, the open circle indicating full moon and the dark circle indicat￾ing new moon. If the intersection of the vertical dateline and the horizontal latitude line falls in the “moon above ho￾rizon” or “moon below horizon” area, the moon remains above or below the horizon, respectively, for the entire 24 hours of the day. If approximations of the times of moonrise and moon￾set are sufficient, the semiduration of moonlight is taken for the time of meridian passage and can be used without ad￾justment. When as estimated time of rise falls on the preceding day, that phenomenon may be recalculated using the meridian passage and semiduration for the day follow￾ing. When an estimated time of set falls on the following day, that phenomenon may be recalculated using meridian passage and semiduration for the preceding day. For more accurate results (seldom justified), the times on the required date and the adjacent date (the following date in W longi￾tude and the preceding date in E longitude) should be determined, and an interpolation made for longitude, as in any latitude, since the intervals given are for the Greenwich meridian. Sunlight, twilight, and moonlight graphs are not given for south latitudes. Beyond latitude 65°S, the northern hemisphere graphs can be used for determining the semidu￾ration or duration, by using the vertical dateline for a day when the declination has the same numerical value but op￾posite sign. The time of meridian transit and the phase of the moon are determined as explained above, using the cor￾rect date. Between latitudes 60°S and 65°S, the solution is made by interpolation between the tables and the graphs. Other methods of solution of these phenomena are available. The Tide Tables tabulate sunrise and sunset from latitude 76°N to 60°S. Semiduration or duration can be de￾termined graphically using a diagram on the plane of the celestial meridian, or by computation. When computation is used, solution is made for the meridian angle at which the required negative altitude occurs. The meridian angle ex￾pressed in time units is the semiduration in the case of sunrise, sunset, moonrise, and moonset; and the semidura￾tion of the combined sunlight and twilight, or the time from meridian transit at which morning twilight begins or evening twilight ends. For sunrise and sunset the altitude used is (-)50'. Allowance for height of eye can be made by algebraically subtracting (numerically adding) the dip cor￾rection from this altitude. The altitude used for twilight is (- )6°, (-)12°, or (-)18° for civil, nautical, or astronomical twi￾light, respectively. The altitude used for moonrise and

306THEALMANACSmoonset is -34- SD + HP, where SD is semidiameter andvessel at this time to make a more accurate solution, IfHP is horizontal parallax, from the daily pages of the Nau-greater accuracy isrequired, the position at the time indicat-ticalAlmanac.ed in the second solution can be used for a third solution. Ifdesired, this process can berepeated until the same answer1912.Rising,Setting,And TwilightOnAMovingCraftis obtained from two consecutive solutions.However, it isgenerally sufficient to alter the first solution by 1m for eachInstructionstothis pointrelateto afixed position on15'of longitude that the position of the craft differs fromthe earth, Aboard a moving craft the problem is complicat-that used in the solution, adding if west ofthe estimated poed somewhatby the factthat time of occurrence dependssition,and subtracting ifeastofit.Inapplying thisrule,useupon position of the craft, which itself depends on the time.both longitudes to the nearest 15'The first solution is theAtshipspeeds,it isgenerallysufficientlyaccuratetomakean approximatemental solution and use theposition of thefirst estimate, the second solution is the second estimate

306 THE ALMANACS moonset is -34’ - SD + HP, where SD is semidiameter and HP is horizontal parallax, from the daily pages of the Nau￾tical Almanac. 1912. Rising, Setting, And Twilight On A Moving Craft Instructions to this point relate to a fixed position on the earth. Aboard a moving craft the problem is complicat￾ed somewhat by the fact that time of occurrence depends upon position of the craft, which itself depends on the time. At ship speeds, it is generally sufficiently accurate to make an approximate mental solution and use the position of the vessel at this time to make a more accurate solution. If greater accuracy is required, the position at the time indicat￾ed in the second solution can be used for a third solution. If desired, this process can be repeated until the same answer is obtained from two consecutive solutions. However, it is generally sufficient to alter the first solution by 1m for each 15’ of longitude that the position of the craft differs from that used in the solution, adding if west of the estimated po￾sition, and subtracting if east of it. In applying this rule, use both longitudes to the nearest 15’. The first solution is the first estimate; the second solution is the second estimate