《翻译与思辩》参考资料：Topic 2 Medical ethics_what is medical ethics

Medical ethics is a system of moral principles that apply values and judgments to the practice of medicine. As a scholarly discipline, medical ethics encompasses its practical application in clinical settings as well as work on its history, philosophy, theology, and sociology Historically, Western medical ethics may be traced to guidelines on the duty of physicians in antiquity, such as the Hippocratic Oath, and early rabbinic and Christian teachings. In the medieval and early modern period, the field is indebted to Muslim medicine such as Ishaq bin Al Rahawi(who wrote the Conduct of a Physician, the first book dedicated to medical ethics) and Muhammad ibn Zakariya ar-Razi (known as rhazes in the West), Jewish thinkers such as Maimonides, Roman Catholic scholastic thinkers such as Thomas Aquinas, and the case-oriented analysis(casuistry) of Catholic moral theology. These intellectual traditions continue in Catholic Islamic and Jewish medical ethics By the 18th and 19th centuries, medical ethics emerged as a more self-conscious discourse. For instance, authors such as Thomas Percival wrote about"medical jurisprudence"and reportedly coined the phrase "medical ethics. Percival's guidelines related to physician consultations ha been criticized as being excessively protective of the home physician s reputation. Jeffrey Berlant is one such critic who considers Percival's codes of physician consultations as being an early example of the anti-competitive, "guild-like nature of the physician community. In 1847. the American Medical Association adopted its first code of ethics, with this being based in large part upon Percival's work 3]. While the secularized field borrowed largely from Catholic medical ethics, in the 20th century a distinctively liberal Protestant approach was articulated by thinkers such as Joseph Fletcher. In the and 1970s, building upon liberal theory and procedural Justice, much dical ethics went through a dramatic shift and largely configured itself into bioethics Since the 1970s, the growing influence of ethics in contemporary medicine can be seen in the increasing use of Institutional Review Boards to evaluate experiments on human subjects, the establishment of hospital ethics committees, the expansion of the role of clinician ethicists, and the ntegration of ethics into many medical school curricula Values in medical ethics Six of the values that commonly apply to medical ethics discussions Autonomy-the patient has the right to refuse or choose their treatment Beneficence-a practitioner should act in the best interest of the patient Non-maleficence-"first do no harm Justice - concerns the distribution of scarce health resources, and the decision of who gets what treatment(fairness and equality nity the person treating the patient) have the right to dignity Truthfulness and honesty -the concept of informed consent has increased in importance since the historical events of the Doctors Trial of the Nuremberg trials and Tuskegee Syphilis Study Values such as these do not give answers as to how to handle a particular situation, but provide

Medical ethics is a system of moral principles that apply values and judgments to the practice of medicine. As a scholarly discipline, medical ethics encompasses its practical application in clinical settings as well as work on its history, philosophy, theology, and sociology Historically, Western medical ethics may be traced to guidelines on the duty of physicians in antiquity, such as the Hippocratic Oath, and early rabbinic and Christian teachings. In the medieval and early modern period, the field is indebted to Muslim medicine such as Ishaq bin Ali Rahawi (who wrote the Conduct of a Physician, the first book dedicated to medical ethics) and Muhammad ibn Zakariya ar-Razi (known as Rhazes in the West), Jewish thinkers such as Maimonides, Roman Catholic scholastic thinkers such as Thomas Aquinas, and the case-oriented analysis (casuistry) of Catholic moral theology. These intellectual traditions continue in Catholic, Islamic and Jewish medical ethics. By the 18th and 19th centuries, medical ethics emerged as a more self-conscious discourse. For instance, authors such as Thomas Percival wrote about "medical jurisprudence" and reportedly coined the phrase "medical ethics." Percival's guidelines related to physician consultations have been criticized as being excessively protective of the home physician's reputation. Jeffrey Berlant is one such critic who considers Percival's codes of physician consultations as being an early example of the anti-competitive, "guild"-like nature of the physician community. In 1847. the American Medical Association adopted its first code of ethics, with this being based in large part upon Percival's work [3]. While the secularized field borrowed largely from Catholic medical ethics, in the 20th century a distinctively liberal Protestant approach was articulated by thinkers such as Joseph Fletcher. In the 1960s and 1970s, building upon liberal theory and procedural justice, much of the discourse of medical ethics went through a dramatic shift and largely reconfigured itself into bioethics. Since the 1970s, the growing influence of ethics in contemporary medicine can be seen in the increasing use of Institutional Review Boards to evaluate experiments on human subjects, the establishment of hospital ethics committees, the expansion of the role of clinician ethicists, and the integration of ethics into many medical school curricula. Values in medical ethics Six of the values that commonly apply to medical ethics discussions are: Autonomy - the patient has the right to refuse or choose their treatment. Beneficence - a practitioner should act in the best interest of the patient. Non-maleficence - "first, do no harm". Justice - concerns the distribution of scarce health resources, and the decision of who gets what treatment (fairness and equality). Dignity - the patient (and the person treating the patient) have the right to dignity. Truthfulness and honesty - the concept of informed consent has increased in importance since the historical events of the Doctors' Trial of the Nuremberg trials and Tuskegee Syphilis Study. Values such as these do not give answers as to how to handle a particular situation, but provide

a useful framework for understanding conflicts values are in conflict, the result may be an ethical dilemma o good solution to a dilemma in medical ethics exists, and occasionally, e medIc community(ie, the hospital and its staff)conflict with the values of the individual patient, fami or larger non-medical community. Conflicts can also arise between health care providers, or among family members. Some argue for example, that the principles of autonomy and beneficence clash when patients refuse blood transfusions, considering them life-saving; and truth-telling was not emphasized to a large extent before the HIv era. from Wikipedia

a useful framework for understanding conflicts. When moral values are in conflict, the result may be an ethical dilemma or crisis. Sometimes, no good solution to a dilemma in medical ethics exists, and occasionally, the values of the medical community (i.e., the hospital and its staff) conflict with the values of the individual patient, family, or larger non-medical community. Conflicts can also arise between health care providers, or among family members. Some argue for example, that the principles of autonomy and beneficence clash when patients refuse blood transfusions, considering them life-saving; and truth-telling was not emphasized to a large extent before the HIV era. --- fromWikipedia